CISSP Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) Question and Answers

In a change-controlled environment, the activity that is most likely to lead to unauthorized changes to production programs is promoting programs to production without approval. A change-controlled environment is an environment that follows a specific process or a procedure for managing and tracking the changes to the hardware and software components of a system or a network, such as the configuration, the functionality, or the security of the system or the network. A change-controlled environment can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the performance and the functionality of the system or the network, preventing or mitigating some types of attacks or vulnerabilities, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. A change-controlled environment can involve various steps and roles, such as:

• Change request, which is the initiation or the proposal of a change to the system or the network, by a user, a developer, a manager, or another stakeholder. A change request should include the details and the justification of the change, such as the scope, the purpose, the impact, the cost, or the risk of the change.
• Change review, which is the evaluation or the assessment of the change request, by a group of experts or advisors, such as the change manager, the change review board, or the change advisory board. A change review should include the decision and the feedback of the change request, such as the approval, the rejection, the modification, or the postponement of the change request.
• Change development, which is the implementation or the execution of the change request, by a group of developers or programmers, who are responsible for creating or modifying the code or the program of the system or the network, according to the specifications and the requirements of the change request.
• Change testing, which is the verification or the validation of the change request, by a group of testers or analysts, who are responsible for checking or confirming the functionality and the quality of the code or the program of the system or the network, according to the standards and the criteria of the change request.
• Change deployment, which is the installation or the integration of the change request, by a group of administrators or operators, who are responsible for moving or transferring the code or the program of the system or the network, from the development or the testing environment to the production or the operational environment, according to the schedule and the plan of the change request.

Promoting programs to production without approval is the activity that is most likely to lead to unauthorized changes to production programs, as it violates the change-controlled environment process and procedure, and it introduces potential risks or issues to the system or the network. Promoting programs to production without approval means that the code or the program of the system or the network is moved or transferred from the development or the testing environment to the production or the operational environment, without obtaining the necessary or the sufficient authorization or consent from the relevant or the responsible parties, such as the change manager, the change review board, or the change advisory board. Promoting programs to production without approval can lead to unauthorized changes to production programs, as it can result in the following consequences:

• The code or the program of the system or the network may not be fully or properly tested or verified, and it may contain errors, bugs, or vulnerabilities that may affect the functionality or the quality of the system or the network, or that may compromise the security or the integrity of the system or the network.
• The code or the program of the system or the network may not be compatible or interoperable with the existing or the expected components or features of the system or the network, and it may cause conflicts, disruptions, or failures to the system or the network, or to the users or the customers of the system or the network.
• The code or the program of the system or the network may not be documented or recorded, and it may not be traceable or accountable, and it may not be aligned or compliant with the policies or the standards of the system or the network, or of the organization or the industry.

The best way to reduce the impact of an externally sourced flood attack is to have the service provider block the source address. A flood attack is a type of denial-of-service attack that aims to overwhelm the target system or network with a large amount of traffic, such as SYN packets, ICMP packets, or UDP packets. An externally sourced flood attack is a flood attack that originates from outside the target’s network, such as from the internet. Having the service provider block the source address can help to reduce the impact of an externally sourced flood attack, as it can prevent the malicious traffic from reaching the target’s network, and thus conserve the network bandwidth and resources. Having the source service provider block the address, blocking the source address at the firewall, or blocking all inbound traffic until the flood ends are not the best ways to reduce the impact of an externally sourced flood attack, as they may not be feasible, effective, or efficient, respectively. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, page 745; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 525.

From a security perspective, the assumption that must be made about input to an application is that it is untrusted. Untrusted input is any data or information that is provided by an external or an unknown source, such as a user, a client, a network, or a file, and that is not validated or verified by the application before being processed or used by the application. Untrusted input can pose a serious security risk for the application, as it can contain or introduce malicious or harmful content or commands, such as malware, viruses, worms, trojans, or SQL injection, that can compromise or damage the confidentiality, the integrity, or the availability of the application, or the data or the systems that are connected to the application. Therefore, from a security perspective, the assumption that must be made about input to an application is that it is untrusted, and that it should be treated with caution and suspicion, and that it should be subjected to various security controls or mechanisms, such as input validation, input sanitization, input filtering, or input encoding, before being processed or used by the application. Input validation is the process or the technique of checking or verifying that the input meets the expected or the required format, type, length, range, or value, and that it does not contain or introduce any invalid or illegal characters, symbols, or commands. Input sanitization is the process or the technique of removing or modifying any invalid or illegal characters, symbols, or commands from the input, or replacing them with valid or legal ones, to prevent or mitigate any potential attacks or vulnerabilities. Input filtering is the process or the technique of allowing or blocking the input based on a predefined or a configurable set of rules or criteria, such as a whitelist or a blacklist, to prevent or mitigate any unwanted or unauthorized input. Input encoding is the process or the technique of transforming or converting the input into a different or a standard format or representation, such as HTML, URL, or Base64, to prevent or mitigate any interpretation or execution of the input by the application or the system. It is tested, it is logged, and it is verified are not the assumptions that must be made about input to an application from a security perspective, although they may be related or possible aspects or outcomes of input to an application. It is tested is an aspect or an outcome of input to an application, as it implies that the input has been subjected to various tests or evaluations, such as unit testing, integration testing, or penetration testing, to verify or validate the functionality and the quality of the input, as well as to detect or report any errors, bugs, or vulnerabilities in the input. However, it is tested is not an assumption that must be made about input to an application from a security perspective, as it is not a precautionary or a preventive measure to protect the application from untrusted input, and it may not be true or applicable for all input to an application. It is logged is an aspect or an outcome of input to an application, as it implies that the input has been recorded or stored in a log file or a database, along with other relevant information or metadata, such as the source, the destination, the timestamp, or the status of the input, to provide a trace or a history of the input, as well as to support the audit and the compliance activities. However, it is logged is not an assumption that must be made about input to an application from a security perspective, as it is not a precautionary or a preventive measure to protect the application from untrusted input, and it may not be true or applicable for all input to an application. It is verified is an aspect or an outcome of input to an application, as it implies that the input has been confirmed or authenticated by the application or the system, using various security controls or mechanisms, such as digital signatures, certificates, or tokens, to ensure the integrity and the authenticity of the input, as well as to prevent or mitigate any tampering or spoofing of the input. However, it is verified is not an assumption that must be made about input to an application from a security perspective, as it is not a precautionary or a preventive measure to protect the application from untrusted input, and it may not be true or applicable for all input to an application. 

The greatest impact on security for the network is that the ICS is now accessible from the office network. This means that the ICS is exposed to more potential threats and vulnerabilities from the internet and the office network, such as malware, unauthorized access, data leakage, or denial-of-service attacks. The ICS may also have different security requirements and standards than the office network, such as availability, reliability, and safety. Therefore, connecting the ICS to the office network increases the risk of compromising the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the ICS and the critical infrastructure it controls. The other options are not as significant as the increased attack surface and complexity of the network. References: Guide to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security | NIST, page 2-1; Industrial Control Systems | Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, page 1.

The most important security goal when performing application interface testing is to examine error conditions related to external interfaces to prevent application details leakage. Application interface testing is a type of testing that focuses on the interactions between different systems or components through their interfaces, such as APIs, web services, or protocols. Error conditions related to external interfaces can occur when the input, output, or communication is invalid, incomplete, or unexpected. These error conditions can cause the application to reveal sensitive or confidential information, such as error messages, stack traces, configuration files, or database queries, which can be exploited by attackers to gain access or compromise the system. Therefore, it is important to examine these error conditions and ensure that the application handles them properly and securely. Confirming that all platforms are supported and function properly, evaluating whether systems or components pass data and control correctly to one another, and verifying compatibility of software, hardware, and network connections are not security goals, but functional or performance goals of application interface testing. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Software Development Security, page 1000; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7: Software Development Security, page 922.

Code review is the technique that would minimize the ability of an attacker to exploit a buffer overflow. A buffer overflow is a type of vulnerability that occurs when a program writes more data to a buffer than it can hold, causing the data to overwrite the adjacent memory locations, such as the return address or the stack pointer. An attacker can exploit a buffer overflow by injecting malicious code or data into the buffer, and altering the execution flow of the program to execute the malicious code or data. Code review is the technique that would minimize the ability of an attacker to exploit a buffer overflow, as it involves examining the source code of the program to identify and fix any errors, flaws, or weaknesses that may lead to buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Code review can help to detect and prevent the use of unsafe or risky functions, such as gets, strcpy, or sprintf, that do not perform any boundary checking on the buffer, and replace them with safer or more secure alternatives, such as fgets, strncpy, or snprintf, that limit the amount of data that can be written to the buffer. Code review can also help to enforce and verify the use of secure coding practices and standards, such as input validation, output encoding, error handling, or memory management, that can reduce the likelihood or impact of buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Memory review, message division, and buffer division are not techniques that would minimize the ability of an attacker to exploit a buffer overflow, although they may be related or useful concepts. Memory review is not a technique, but a process of analyzing the memory layout or content of a program, such as the stack, the heap, or the registers, to understand or debug its behavior or performance. Memory review may help to identify or investigate the occurrence or effect of a buffer overflow, but it does not prevent or mitigate it. Message division is not a technique, but a concept of splitting a message into smaller or fixed-size segments or blocks, such as in cryptography or networking. Message division may help to improve the security or efficiency of the message transmission or processing, but it does not prevent or mitigate buffer overflow. Buffer division is not a technique, but a concept of dividing a buffer into smaller or separate buffers, such as in buffering or caching. Buffer division may help to optimize the memory usage or allocation of the program, but it does not prevent or mitigate buffer overflow.

An application-level firewall is the most effective in detecting information hiding in TCP/IP traffic. Information hiding is a technique that conceals data or messages within other data or messages, such as using steganography, covert channels, or encryption. An application-level firewall is a type of firewall that operates at the application layer of the OSI model, and inspects the content and context of the network packets, such as the headers, payloads, or protocols. An application-level firewall can help to detect information hiding in TCP/IP traffic, as it can analyze the data for any anomalies, inconsistencies, or violations of the expected format or behavior. A stateful inspection firewall, a content-filtering proxy, and a packet-filter firewall are not as effective in detecting information hiding in TCP/IP traffic, as they operate at lower layers of the OSI model, and only inspect the state, content, or header of the network packets, respectively. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, page 731; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 511.

Network Access Control (NAC) is a technology that enforces security policies and controls on the devices that attempt to access a network. NAC can verify the identity and compliance of the devices, and grant or deny access based on predefined rules and criteria. NAC can also place the devices into different domains or segments, depending on their security posture and role. One of the domains that NAC can create is the isolated domain, which is a restricted network segment that isolates the devices that do not meet the security requirements or pose a potential threat to the network. The devices in the isolated domain have limited or no access to the network resources, and are subject to remediation actions. Remediation is the process of fixing or improving the security status of the devices, by applying the necessary updates, patches, configurations, or software. Remediation can be performed automatically by the NAC system, or manually by the device owner or administrator. Therefore, the best thing that can be done on a device that is placed into an isolated domain by NAC is to apply remediation’s according to the security requirements, which can restore the device’s compliance and enable it to access the network normally. 

Section: Security Operations

The best technique to address the threat of an imminent DDoS attack targeting a web application is to coordinate with and utilize the capabilities within the ISP. A DDoS attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal traffic of a targeted server, service, or network by overwhelming the target or its surrounding infrastructure with a flood of Internet traffic. A DDoS attack can cause severe damage to the availability, performance, and reputation of the web application, as well as incur financial losses and legal liabilities. Therefore, it is important to have a DDoS mitigation strategy in place to prevent or minimize the impact of such attacks. One of the most effective ways to mitigate DDoS attacks is to leverage the capabilities of the ISP, as they have more resources, bandwidth, and expertise to handle large volumes of traffic and filter out malicious packets. The ISP can also provide additional services such as traffic monitoring, alerting, reporting, and analysis, as well as assist with the investigation and prosecution of the attackers. The ISP can also work with other ISPs and network operators to coordinate the response and share information about the attack. The other options are not the best techniques to address the threat of an imminent DDoS attack, as they may not be sufficient, timely, or scalable to handle the attack. Deploying load balancers, setting up web application firewalls, and implementing reverse web-proxies are some of the measures that can be taken at the application level to improve the resilience and security of the web application, but they may not be able to cope with the magnitude and complexity of a DDoS attack, especially if the attack targets the network layer or the infrastructure layer. Moreover, these measures may require more time, cost, and effort to implement and maintain, and may not be feasible to deploy in a short notice. References: What is a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack?; What is a DDoS Attack? DDoS Meaning, Definition & Types | Fortinet; Denial-of-service attack - Wikipedia.

 The security access policy that contains fixed security attributes that are used by the system to determine a user’s access to a file or object is Mandatory Access Control (MAC). MAC is a type of access control model that assigns permissions to users and objects based on their security labels, which indicate their level of sensitivity or trustworthiness. MAC is enforced by the system or the network, rather than by the owner or the creator of the object, and it cannot be modified or overridden by the users. MAC can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the confidentiality and the integrity of the data, preventing unauthorized access or disclosure, and supporting the audit and compliance activities. MAC is commonly used in military or government environments, where the data is classified according to its level of sensitivity, such as top secret, secret, confidential, or unclassified. The users are granted security clearance based on their level of trustworthiness, such as their background, their role, or their need to know. The users can only access the objects that have the same or lower security classification than their security clearance, and the objects can only be accessed by the users that have the same or higher security clearance than their security classification. This is based on the concept of no read up and no write down, which requires that a user can only read data of lower or equal sensitivity level, and can only write data of higher or equal sensitivity level. MAC contains fixed security attributes that are used by the system to determine a user’s access to a file or object, by using the following methods:

• Assigning security labels to the users and the objects, which consist of a security classification and a set of security categories. The security classification indicates the level of sensitivity of the data, such as top secret, secret, confidential, or unclassified. The security categories indicate the subject matter or the scope of the data, such as nuclear, military, or intelligence. The security labels are attached to the users and the objects as metadata or tags, and they cannot be changed or removed by the users.
• Comparing the security labels of the users and the objects, using a reference monitor or an access control matrix. The reference monitor is a software component that intercepts and evaluates the requests for access to the objects, and grants or denies the access based on the security labels of the users and the objects. The access control matrix is a data structure that lists the users and the objects, and the permissions that each user has on each object, based on the security labels of the users and the objects.

The first step in establishing an information security program is to establish an information security policy. An information security policy is a document that defines the objectives, scope, principles, and responsibilities of the information security program. An information security policy provides the foundation and direction for the information security program, as well as the basis for the development and implementation of the information security standards, procedures, and guidelines. An information security policy should be approved and supported by the senior management, and communicated and enforced across the organization. Identifying factors affecting information security, establishing baseline security controls, and identifying critical security infrastructure are not the first steps in establishing an information security program, but they may be part of the subsequent steps, such as the risk assessment, risk mitigation, or risk monitoring. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 22; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 14.

 Penetration testing is a type of test that an organization performs in order to locate and target exploitable defects in its information systems and networks. Penetration testing simulates a real-world attack scenario, where a tester, also known as a penetration tester or ethical hacker, tries to find and exploit the vulnerabilities in the system or network, using the same tools and techniques as a malicious attacker. The goal of penetration testing is to identify the weaknesses and gaps in the security posture of the organization, and to provide recommendations and solutions to mitigate or eliminate them. Penetration testing can help the organization improve its security awareness, compliance, and resilience, and prevent potential breaches or incidents. 

A DoS attack on a syslog server exploits weakness in TCP and UDP protocols. A syslog server is a server that collects and stores log messages from various devices on a network, such as routers, switches, firewalls, or servers. A syslog server uses either TCP or UDP protocols to receive log messages from the devices. A DoS attack on a syslog server can exploit the weakness of these protocols by sending a large volume of fake or malformed log messages to the syslog server, causing it to crash or become unresponsive. The other protocols are not relevant to a syslog server or a DoS attack. References: Denial-of-Service Attacks: History, Techniques & Prevention; What is a syslog server? | SolarWinds MSP.

 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a protocol that is often used between gateway hosts on the Internet. A gateway host is a network device that connects two or more different networks, such as a router or a firewall. BGP is a routing protocol that exchanges routing information between autonomous systems (ASes), which are groups of networks under a single administrative control. BGP is used to determine the best path to reach a destination network on the Internet, based on various factors such as hop count, bandwidth, latency, and policy. BGP is also used to implement interdomain routing policies, such as traffic engineering, load balancing, and security. BGP is the de facto standard for Internet routing and is widely deployed by Internet service providers (ISPs) and large enterprises. The other options are not protocols that are often used between gateway hosts on the Internet. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is an obsolete protocol that was used to exchange routing information between ASes before BGP. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a protocol that is used to exchange routing information within an AS, not between ASes. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a protocol that is used to send error and control messages between hosts and routers, not to exchange routing information. References: Border Gateway Protocol - Wikipedia; What is Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)? - Definition from WhatIs.com; What is BGP? | How BGP Routing Works | Cloudflare.

 The foundation of cryptographic functions is entropy. Entropy is a measure of the randomness or unpredictability of a system or a process. Entropy is essential for cryptographic functions, such as encryption, decryption, hashing, or key generation, as it provides the security and the strength of the cryptographic algorithms and keys. Entropy can be derived from various sources, such as physical phenomena, user input, or software applications. Entropy can also be quantified in terms of bits, where higher entropy means higher randomness and higher security. Encryption, cipher, and hash are not the foundation of cryptographic functions, although they are related or important concepts or techniques. Encryption is the process of transforming plaintext or cleartext into ciphertext or cryptogram, using a cryptographic algorithm and a key, to protect the confidentiality and the integrity of the data. Encryption can be symmetric or asymmetric, depending on whether the same or different keys are used for encryption and decryption. Cipher is another term for a cryptographic algorithm, which is a mathematical function that performs encryption or decryption. Cipher can be classified into various types, such as substitution, transposition, stream, or block, depending on how they operate on the data. Hash is the process of generating a fixed-length and unique output, called a hash or a digest, from a variable-length and arbitrary input, using a one-way function, to verify the integrity and the authenticity of the data. Hash can be used for various purposes, such as digital signatures, message authentication codes, or password storage. 

Standardized configurations for devices can help to reduce the complexity and variability of the systems that need to be patched, and thus facilitate the testing of patch compatibility. Standardized configurations can also help to ensure that the patches are applied consistently and correctly across the organization. Standardized patch testing equipment, automated system patching, and management support for patching are also important factors for effective patch management, but they are not directly related to testing patch compatibility. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Security Engineering, page 605; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 386.

The best location in a network to place Virtual Private Network (VPN) devices when an internal review reveals network design flaws in remote access is in a dedicated Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). A DMZ is a network segment that is located between the internal network and the external network, such as the internet. A DMZ is used to host the services or devices that need to be accessed by both the internal and external users, such as web servers, email servers, or VPN devices. A VPN device is a device that enables the establishment of a VPN, which is a secure and encrypted connection between two networks or endpoints over a public network, such as the internet. Placing the VPN devices in a dedicated DMZ can help to improve the security and performance of the remote access, as well as to isolate the VPN devices from the internal network and the external network. Placing the VPN devices in its own separate VLAN, at the ISP, or outside the external firewall are not the best locations, as they may expose the VPN devices to more risks, reduce the control over the VPN devices, or create a single point of failure for the remote access. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, page 729; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 509.

The steps of a risk assessment are identification, analysis, and evaluation. Identification is the process of finding and listing the assets, threats, and vulnerabilities that are relevant to the risk assessment. Analysis is the process of estimating the likelihood and impact of each threat scenario and calculating the level of risk. Evaluation is the process of comparing the risk level with the risk criteria and determining whether the risk is acceptable or not. Mitigation is not part of the risk assessment, but it is part of the risk management, which is the process of applying controls to reduce or eliminate the risk. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 36; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 28.

Enterprise security architecture is the framework that defines the security policies, standards, guidelines, and controls that govern the security of an organization’s information systems and assets. Enterprise security architecture must be scalable to address the security concerns raised by the integration of third-party identity services, such as Identity as a Service (IDaaS) or federated identity management. Scalability means that the enterprise security architecture can accommodate the increased complexity, diversity, and volume of identity and access management transactions and interactions that result from the integration of external identity providers and consumers. Scalability also means that the enterprise security architecture can adapt to the changing security requirements and threats that may arise from the integration of third-party identity services.

The best internationally recognized standard for evaluating security products and systems is Common Criteria (CC), which is a framework or a methodology that defines and describes the criteria or the guidelines for the evaluation or the assessment of the security functionality and the security assurance of information technology (IT) products and systems, such as hardware, software, firmware, or network devices. Common Criteria (CC) can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the confidence and the trust in the security products and systems, preventing or mitigating some types of attacks or vulnerabilities, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. Common Criteria (CC) can involve various elements and roles, such as:

• Protection Profile (PP), which is a document or a specification that defines and describes the security requirements or the objectives for a class or a category of security products or systems, such as firewalls, routers, or operating systems, and that is created or published by the consumers or the users of the security products or systems, such as the customers, the organizations, or the governments.
• Security Target (ST), which is a document or a specification that defines and describes the security functionality and the security assurance of a specific security product or system, and that is created or published by the vendors or the developers of the security product or system, such as the manufacturers, the suppliers, or the companies.
• Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL), which is a measure or an indicator of the level or the degree of the security assurance of a security product or system, based on the scope and the rigor of the evaluation or the assessment process, and that ranges from EAL1 (the lowest) to EAL7 (the highest), with each level having a predefined or a standard set of assurance components or requirements, such as the functional testing, the vulnerability analysis, or the design documentation.
• Evaluation, which is the process or the activity of testing or verifying the security functionality and the security assurance of a security product or system, according to the criteria or the guidelines of the Common Criteria (CC), and that is performed or conducted by an independent or a certified evaluation facility or laboratory, such as the National Information Assurance Partnership (NIAP) or the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program (NVLAP).
• Certification, which is the process or the activity of validating or confirming the results or the outcomes of the evaluation of a security product or system, according to the criteria or the guidelines of the Common Criteria (CC), and that is performed or conducted by an independent or a certified certification body or authority, such as the Common Criteria Recognition Arrangement (CCRA) or the National Information Assurance Partnership (NIAP).

Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI-DSS), Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), and Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) are not internationally recognized standards for evaluating security products and systems, although they may be related or relevant regulations or frameworks for security. Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI-DSS) is a regulation or a framework that defines and describes the security requirements or the objectives for the protection and the management of the cardholder data or the payment card information, such as the credit card number, the expiration date, or the card verification value, and that applies to the entities or the organizations that are involved or engaged in the processing, the storage, or the transmission of the cardholder data or the payment card information, such as the merchants, the service providers, or the acquirers. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) is a regulation or a framework that defines and describes the security requirements or the objectives for the protection and the management of the protected health information (PHI) or the personal health information, such as the medical records, the diagnosis, or the treatment, and that applies to the entities or the organizations that are involved or engaged in the provision, the payment, or the operation of the health care services or the health care plans, such as the health care providers, the health care clearinghouses, or the health plans. Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) is a regulation or a framework that defines and describes the security requirements or the objectives for the protection and the management of the financial information or the financial reports, such as the income statement, the balance sheet, or the cash flow statement, and that applies to the entities or the organizations

A negative testing strategy is a type of software testing that aims to verify how the system handles invalid or unexpected inputs, errors, or conditions. A negative testing strategy can help identify potential bugs, vulnerabilities, or failures that could compromise the functionality, security, or usability of the system. One example of a negative testing strategy is to enter only numbers in a web form that expects a text input, such as a name or an email address, and verify that the website prompts the user to enter a valid input. This can help ensure that the website has proper input validation and error handling mechanisms, and that it does not accept or process any malicious or malformed data. A web scanner, a code review, and a secure connection are not examples of a negative testing strategy, as they do not involve providing invalid or unexpected inputs to the system.

Information ownership is the most important factor when determining who can accept the risk associated with a vulnerability. Information ownership is the concept that assigns the roles and responsibilities for the creation, maintenance, protection, and disposal of information assets within an organization. Information owners are the individuals or entities who have the authority and accountability for the information assets, and who can make decisions regarding the information lifecycle, classification, access, and usage. Information owners are also responsible for accepting or rejecting the risk associated with the information assets, and for ensuring that the risk is managed and communicated appropriately. Information owners can delegate some of their responsibilities to other roles, such as information custodians, information users, or information stewards, but they cannot delegate their accountability for the information assets and the associated risk. Countermeasure effectiveness, type of potential loss, and incident likelihood are not the most important factors when determining who can accept the risk associated with a vulnerability, although they are relevant or useful factors. Countermeasure effectiveness is the measure of how well a security control reduces or eliminates the risk. Countermeasure effectiveness can help to evaluate the cost-benefit and performance of the security control, and to determine the level of residual risk. Type of potential loss is the measure of the adverse impact or consequence that can result from a risk event. Type of potential loss can include financial, operational, reputational, legal, or strategic losses. Type of potential loss can help to assess the severity and priority of the risk, and to justify the investment and implementation of the security control. Incident likelihood is the measure of the probability or frequency of a risk event occurring. Incident likelihood can be influenced by various factors, such as the threat capability, the vulnerability exposure, the environmental conditions, or the historical data. Incident likelihood can help to estimate the level and trend of the risk, and to select the appropriate risk response and security control.

 The most common method of memory protection is segmentation. Segmentation is a technique that divides the memory space into logical segments, such as code, data, stack, and heap. Each segment has its own attributes, such as size, location, access rights, and protection level. Segmentation can help to isolate and protect the memory segments from unauthorized or unintended access, modification, or execution, as well as to prevent memory corruption, overflow, or leakage. Compartmentalization, error correction, and VLAN tagging are not methods of memory protection, but of information protection, data protection, and network protection, respectively. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Security Engineering, page 589; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 370.

Operating System (OS) baselines are of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations. OS baselines are standard or reference configurations that define the desired and secure state of an OS, including the settings, parameters, patches, and updates. OS baselines can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and compliance of the OS by applying the best practices and recommendations from the vendors, authorities, or frameworks
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the OS by optimizing the resources and functions
• Increasing the consistency and uniformity of the OS by reducing the variations and deviations
• Facilitating the monitoring and auditing of the OS by providing a baseline for comparison and measurement

OS baselines are of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they can enable the auditors to evaluate and verify the current and actual state of the OS against the desired and secure state of the OS. OS baselines can also help the auditors to identify and report any gaps, issues, or risks in the OS configurations, and to recommend or implement any corrective or preventive actions.

The other options are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, but rather of assistance for other purposes or aspects. Change management processes are processes that ensure that any changes to the system configurations are planned, approved, implemented, and documented in a controlled and consistent manner. Change management processes can improve the security and reliability of the system configurations by preventing or reducing the errors, conflicts, or disruptions that might occur due to the changes. However, change management processes are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they do not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the procedures and controls for managing the changes. User administration procedures are procedures that define the roles, responsibilities, and activities for creating, modifying, deleting, and managing the user accounts and access rights. User administration procedures can enhance the security and accountability of the user accounts and access rights by enforcing the principles of least privilege, separation of duties, and need to know. However, user administration procedures are not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because they do not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the rules and tasks for administering the users. System backup documentation is documentation that records the information and details about the system backup processes, such as the backup frequency, type, location, retention, and recovery. System backup documentation can increase the availability and resilience of the system by ensuring that the system data and configurations can be restored in case of a loss or damage. However, system backup documentation is not of greatest assistance to auditors when reviewing system configurations, because it does not define the desired and secure state of the system configurations, but rather the backup and recovery of the system configurations.

Guest OS audit logs are what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation. A VM environment is a system that allows multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a single physical machine, each with its own OS and applications. A VM environment can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the utilization and efficiency of the physical resources by sharing them among multiple VMs
• Enhancing the security and isolation of the VMs by preventing or limiting the interference or communication between them
• Increasing the flexibility and scalability of the VMs by allowing them to be created, modified, deleted, or migrated easily and quickly

A guest OS is the OS that runs on a VM, which is different from the host OS that runs on the physical machine. A guest OS can have its own security controls and mechanisms, such as access controls, encryption, authentication, and audit logs. Audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur within a system or a network, such as the access and usage of the data files. Audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the system or network behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents.

Guest OS audit logs are what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation, because they can provide the most accurate and relevant information about the user’s actions and interactions with the data files on the VM. Guest OS audit logs can also help the administrator to identify and report any unauthorized or suspicious access or disclosure of the data files, and to recommend or implement any corrective or preventive actions.

The other options are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files in a VM environment that has five guest OS and provides strong isolation, but rather what an administrator might review for other purposes or aspects. Host VM monitor audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur on the host VM monitor, which is the software or hardware component that manages and controls the VMs on the physical machine. Host VM monitor audit logs can provide information about the performance, status, and configuration of the VMs, but they cannot provide information about the user’s access to data files on the VMs. Guest OS access controls are rules and mechanisms that regulate and restrict the access and permissions of the users and processes to the resources and services on the guest OS. Guest OS access controls can provide a proactive and preventive layer of security by enforcing the principles of least privilege, separation of duties, and need to know. However, guest OS access controls are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files, but rather what an administrator must configure and implement to protect the data files. Host VM access controls are rules and mechanisms that regulate and restrict the access and permissions of the users and processes to the VMs on the physical machine. Host VM access controls can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security by defining and assigning the roles and permissions according to the organizational structure and policies. However, host VM access controls are not what an administrator must review to audit a user’s access to data files, but rather what an administrator must configure and implement to protect the VMs.

Security continuous monitoring is the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data. Security process data is the data that reflects the performance, effectiveness, and compliance of the security processes, such as the security policies, standards, procedures, and guidelines. Security process data can include metrics, indicators, logs, reports, and assessments. Security process data can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and risk management of the system by providing the visibility and awareness of the security posture, vulnerabilities, and threats
• Enhancing the security and decision making of the system by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting
• Increasing the security and improvement of the system by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

Security continuous monitoring is the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is the program that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of the system. Security continuous monitoring can enable the system to detect and respond to any security issues or incidents in a timely and effective manner, and to adjust and improve the security controls and processes accordingly. Security continuous monitoring can also help the system to comply with the security requirements and standards from the internal or external authorities or frameworks.

The other options are not the programs in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, but rather programs that have other objectives or scopes. Quarterly access reviews are programs that involve reviewing and verifying the user accounts and access rights on a quarterly basis. Quarterly access reviews can ensure that the user accounts and access rights are valid, authorized, and up to date, and that any inactive, expired, or unauthorized accounts or rights are removed or revoked. However, quarterly access reviews are not the programs in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because they are not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the user accounts and access rights. Business continuity testing is a program that involves testing and validating the business continuity plan (BCP) and the disaster recovery plan (DRP) of the system. Business continuity testing can ensure that the system can continue or resume its critical functions and operations in case of a disruption or disaster, and that the system can meet the recovery objectives and requirements. However, business continuity testing is not the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the continuity and recovery of the system. Annual security training is a program that involves providing and updating the security knowledge and skills of the system users and staff on an annual basis. Annual security training can increase the security awareness and competence of the system users and staff, and reduce the human errors or risks that might compromise the system security. However, annual security training is not the program in which it is most important to include the collection of security process data, because it is not focused on the security status, events, and activities of the system, but rather on the security education and training of the system users and staff.

Technical and management teams will better understand the testing objectives, results of each test phase, and potential impact levels is the primary benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure. Security testing is a process that involves evaluating and verifying the security posture, vulnerabilities, and threats of a system or a network, using various methods and techniques, such as vulnerability assessment, penetration testing, code review, and compliance checks. Security testing can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps
• Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting
• Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization

A security testing report is a document that summarizes and communicates the findings and recommendations of the security testing process to the relevant stakeholders, such as the technical and management teams. A security testing report can have various formats and structures, depending on the scope, purpose, and audience of the report. However, a formalized security testing report format and structure is one that follows a standard and consistent template, such as the one proposed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the Special Publication 800-115, Technical Guide to Information Security Testing and Assessment. A formalized security testing report format and structure can have several components, such as:

• Executive summary: a brief overview of the security testing objectives, scope, methodology, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: a detailed description of the security testing background, purpose, scope, assumptions, limitations, and constraints
• Methodology: a detailed explanation of the security testing approach, techniques, tools, and procedures
• Results: a detailed presentation of the security testing findings, such as the vulnerabilities, threats, risks, and impact levels, organized by test phases or categories
• Recommendations: a detailed proposal of the security testing suggestions, such as the remediation, mitigation, or prevention strategies, prioritized by impact levels or risk ratings
• Conclusion: a brief summary of the security testing outcomes, implications, and future steps

Technical and management teams will better understand the testing objectives, results of each test phase, and potential impact levels is the primary benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, because it can ensure that the security testing report is clear, comprehensive, and consistent, and that it provides the relevant and useful information for the technical and management teams to make informed and effective decisions and actions regarding the system or network security.

The other options are not the primary benefits of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but rather secondary or specific benefits for different audiences or purposes. Executive audiences will understand the outcomes of testing and most appropriate next steps for corrective actions to be taken is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the executive summary component of the report, which is a brief and high-level overview of the report, rather than the entire report. Technical teams will understand the testing objectives, testing strategies applied, and business risk associated with each vulnerability is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the methodology and results components of the report, which are more technical and detailed parts of the report, rather than the entire report. Management teams will understand the testing objectives and reputational risk to the organization is a benefit of using a formalized security testing report format and structure, but it is not the primary benefit, because it is more relevant for the introduction and conclusion components of the report, which are more contextual and strategic parts of the report, rather than the entire report.

Remote access audit logs could cause a Denial of Service (DoS) against an authentication system. A DoS attack is a type of attack that aims to disrupt or degrade the availability or performance of a system or a network by overwhelming it with excessive or malicious traffic or requests. An authentication system is a system that verifies the identity and credentials of the users or entities that want to access the system or network resources or services. An authentication system can use various methods or factors to authenticate the users or entities, such as passwords, tokens, certificates, biometrics, or behavioral patterns.

Remote access audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur when the users or entities access the system or network remotely, such as via the internet, VPN, or dial-up. Remote access audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the remote access behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents.

Remote access audit logs could cause a DoS against an authentication system, because they could consume a large amount of disk space, memory, or bandwidth on the authentication system, especially if the remote access is frequent, intensive, or malicious. This could affect the performance or functionality of the authentication system, and prevent or delay the legitimate users or entities from accessing the system or network resources or services. For example, an attacker could launch a DoS attack against an authentication system by sending a large number of fake or invalid remote access requests, and generating a large amount of remote access audit logs that fill up the disk space or memory of the authentication system, and cause it to crash or slow down.

The other options are not the factors that could cause a DoS against an authentication system, but rather the factors that could improve or protect the authentication system. Encryption of audit logs is a technique that involves using a cryptographic algorithm and a key to transform the audit logs into an unreadable or unintelligible format, that can only be reversed or decrypted by authorized parties. Encryption of audit logs can enhance the security and confidentiality of the audit logs by preventing unauthorized access or disclosure of the sensitive information in the audit logs. However, encryption of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the integrity or privacy of the audit logs. No archiving of audit logs is a practice that involves not storing or transferring the audit logs to a separate or external storage device or location, such as a tape, disk, or cloud. No archiving of audit logs can reduce the security and availability of the audit logs by increasing the risk of loss or damage of the audit logs, and limiting the access or retrieval of the audit logs. However, no archiving of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the availability or preservation of the audit logs. Hashing of audit logs is a technique that involves using a hash function, such as MD5 or SHA, to generate a fixed-length and unique value, called a hash or a digest, that represents the audit logs. Hashing of audit logs can improve the security and integrity of the audit logs by verifying the authenticity or consistency of the audit logs, and detecting any modification or tampering of the audit logs. However, hashing of audit logs could not cause a DoS against an authentication system, because it does not affect the availability or performance of the authentication system, but rather the integrity or verification of the audit logs.

The most appropriate action when reusing media that contains sensitive data is to sanitize the media. Sanitization is the process of removing or destroying all data from the media in such a way that it cannot be recovered by any means. Sanitization can be achieved by various methods, such as overwriting, degaussing, or physical destruction. Sanitization ensures that the sensitive data is not exposed or compromised when the media is reused or disposed of. Erase, encrypt, and degauss are not the most appropriate actions when reusing media that contains sensitive data, although they may be related or useful steps. Erase is the process of deleting data from the media by using the operating system or application commands or functions. Erase does not guarantee that the data is completely removed from the media, as it may leave traces or remnants that can be recovered by using special tools or techniques. Encrypt is the process of transforming data into an unreadable form by using a cryptographic algorithm and a key. Encrypt can protect the data from unauthorized access or disclosure, but it does not remove the data from the media. Encrypt also requires that the key is securely managed and stored, and that the encryption algorithm is strong and reliable. Degauss is the process of applying a strong magnetic field to the media to erase or scramble the data. Degauss can effectively sanitize magnetic media, such as hard disks or tapes, but it does not work on optical media, such as CDs or DVDs. Degauss also renders the media unusable, as it destroys the servo tracks and the firmware that are needed for the media to function properly. 

The data owner is the person who has the authority and responsibility for the information within an Information System (IS). The data owner is accountable for the security, quality, and integrity of the data, as well as for defining the classification, sensitivity, retention, and disposal of the data. The data owner must also approve or deny the access requests and periodically review the access rights. The security manager, the system owner, and the data processor are not accountable for the information within an IS, but they may have roles and responsibilities related to the security and operation of the IS. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 48; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 40.

A common characteristic of privacy is notice to the subject of the existence of a database containing relevant credit card data. Privacy is the right or the expectation of an individual or a group to control or limit the collection, use, disclosure, or retention of their personal or sensitive information by others. Privacy can involve various principles or tenets that are shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, such as GDPR, HIPAA, or PIPEDA. One of the common privacy principles or tenets is notice, which requires that the data subject or the individual whose information is collected or processed should be informed or notified of the following aspects:

• The existence of a database or a system that contains their information, such as credit card data, health records, or biometric data.
• The purpose or the reason for collecting or processing their information, such as billing, marketing, or research.
• The identity or the contact details of the data controller or the party who is responsible for collecting or processing their information, such as a company, an organization, or a government agency.
• The rights or the choices of the data subject regarding their information, such as the right to access, correct, delete, or withdraw their information.

Notice can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the transparency and the accountability of the data collection or processing activities, respecting the consent and the preferences of the data subject, and supporting the compliance and the enforcement of the privacy laws or regulations. Provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data, process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site, and database requirements for integration of privacy data are not common characteristics of privacy, although they may be related or important aspects of privacy. Provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data is a technique that involves recording and storing the logs or the records of the events or the activities that occur on a database or a system that contains private data, such as who accessed, modified, or deleted the data, when, where, how, and why. Provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the visibility and the traceability of the data access or processing activities, preventing or detecting any unauthorized or improper access or processing, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. However, provision for maintaining an audit trail of access to the private data is not a common characteristic of privacy, as it is not a principle or a tenet that is shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, and it may vary depending on the type or the nature of the private data. Process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site is a technique that involves providing a mechanism or a procedure for the data subject to access and verify their personal data that is stored or processed on a database or a system, and to request or make any changes or corrections if needed, such as updating their name, address, or email. Process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the accuracy and the reliability of the personal data, respecting the rights and the interests of the data subject, and supporting the compliance and the enforcement of the privacy laws or regulations. However, process for the subject to inspect and correct personal data on-site is not a common characteristic of privacy, as it is not a principle or a tenet that is shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, and it may vary depending on the type or the nature of the personal data. Database requirements for integration of privacy data are the specifications or the criteria that a database or a system that contains or processes privacy data should meet or comply with, such as the design, the architecture, the functionality, or the security of the database or the system. Database requirements for integration of privacy data can provide some benefits for privacy, such as enhancing the performance and the functionality of the database or the system, preventing or mitigating some types of attacks or vulnerabilities, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. However, database requirements for integration of privacy data are not a common characteristic of privacy, as they are not a principle or a tenet that is shared across different regulatory standards or frameworks, and they may vary depending on the type or the nature of the privacy data. 

Monitoring of a control should occur at a rate concurrent with the volatility of the security control when implementing Information Security Continuous Monitoring (ISCM) solutions. ISCM is a process that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of a system or network, by collecting, analyzing, and reporting the security data and information, using various methods and tools. ISCM can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps
• Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting
• Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization
• Facilitating the compliance and alignment of the system or network with the internal or external requirements and standards

A security control is a measure or mechanism that is implemented to protect the system or network from the security threats or risks, by preventing, detecting, or correcting the security incidents or impacts. A security control can have various types, such as administrative, technical, or physical, and various attributes, such as preventive, detective, or corrective. A security control can also have different levels of volatility, which is the degree or frequency of change or variation of the security control, due to various factors, such as the security requirements, the threat landscape, or the system or network environment.

Monitoring of a control should occur at a rate concurrent with the volatility of the security control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it can ensure that the ISCM solutions can capture and reflect the current and accurate state and performance of the security control, and can identify and report any issues or risks that might affect the security control. Monitoring of a control at a rate concurrent with the volatility of the security control can also help to optimize the ISCM resources and efforts, by allocating them according to the priority and urgency of the security control.

The other options are not the correct frequencies for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, but rather incorrect or unrealistic frequencies that might cause problems or inefficiencies for the ISCM solutions. Continuously without exception for all security controls is an incorrect frequency for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it is not feasible or necessary to monitor all security controls at the same and constant rate, regardless of their volatility or importance. Continuously monitoring all security controls without exception might cause the ISCM solutions to consume excessive or wasteful resources and efforts, and might overwhelm or overload the ISCM solutions with too much or irrelevant data and information. Before and after each change of the control is an incorrect frequency for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it is not sufficient or timely to monitor the security control only when there is a change of the security control, and not during the normal operation of the security control. Monitoring the security control only before and after each change might cause the ISCM solutions to miss or ignore the security status, events, and activities that occur between the changes of the security control, and might delay or hinder the ISCM solutions from detecting and responding to the security issues or incidents that affect the security control. Only during system implementation and decommissioning is an incorrect frequency for monitoring of a control when implementing ISCM solutions, because it is not appropriate or effective to monitor the security control only during the initial or final stages of the system or network lifecycle, and not during the operational or maintenance stages of the system or network lifecycle. Monitoring the security control only during system implementation and decommissioning might cause the ISCM solutions to neglect or overlook the security status, events, and activities that occur during the regular or ongoing operation of the system or network, and might prevent or limit the ISCM solutions from improving and optimizing the security control.

 Isolating the system from the network is the most important step during forensic analysis when trying to learn the purpose of an unknown application. An unknown application is an application that is not recognized or authorized by the system or network administrator, and that may have been installed or executed without the user’s knowledge or consent. An unknown application may have various purposes, such as:

• Providing a legitimate or useful function or service for the user, such as a utility or a tool
• Providing an illegitimate or malicious function or service for the attacker, such as a malware or a backdoor
• Providing a neutral or benign function or service for the developer, such as a trial or a demo

Forensic analysis is a process that involves examining and investigating the system or network for any evidence or traces of the unknown application, such as its origin, nature, behavior, and impact. Forensic analysis can provide several benefits, such as:

• Identifying and classifying the unknown application as legitimate, malicious, or neutral
• Determining and assessing the purpose and function of the unknown application
• Detecting and resolving any issues or risks caused by the unknown application
• Preventing and mitigating any future incidents or attacks involving the unknown application

Isolating the system from the network is the most important step during forensic analysis when trying to learn the purpose of an unknown application, because it can ensure that the system is isolated and protected from any external or internal influences or interferences, and that the forensic analysis is conducted in a safe and controlled environment. Isolating the system from the network can also help to:

• Prevent the unknown application from communicating or connecting with any other system or network, and potentially spreading or escalating the attack
• Prevent the unknown application from receiving or sending any commands or data, and potentially altering or deleting the evidence
• Prevent the unknown application from detecting or evading the forensic analysis, and potentially hiding or destroying itself

The other options are not the most important steps during forensic analysis when trying to learn the purpose of an unknown application, but rather steps that should be done after or along with isolating the system from the network. Disabling all unnecessary services is a step that should be done after isolating the system from the network, because it can ensure that the system is optimized and simplified for the forensic analysis, and that the system resources and functions are not consumed or affected by any irrelevant or redundant services. Ensuring chain of custody is a step that should be done along with isolating the system from the network, because it can ensure that the integrity and authenticity of the evidence are maintained and documented throughout the forensic process, and that the evidence can be traced and verified. Preparing another backup of the system is a step that should be done after isolating the system from the network, because it can ensure that the system data and configuration are preserved and replicated for the forensic analysis, and that the system can be restored and recovered in case of any damage or loss.

 Consolidation of multiple providers is the primary advantage of using a third-party identity service. A third-party identity service is a service that provides identity and access management (IAM) functions, such as authentication, authorization, and federation, for multiple applications or systems, using a single identity provider (IdP). A third-party identity service can offer various benefits, such as:

• Improving the user experience and convenience by allowing the users to access multiple applications or systems with a single sign-on (SSO) or a federated identity
• Enhancing the security and compliance by applying the consistent and standardized IAM policies and controls across multiple applications or systems
• Increasing the scalability and flexibility by enabling the integration and interoperability of multiple applications or systems with different platforms and technologies
• Reducing the cost and complexity by outsourcing the IAM functions to a third-party provider, and avoiding the duplication and maintenance of multiple IAM systems

Consolidation of multiple providers is the primary advantage of using a third-party identity service, because it can simplify and streamline the IAM architecture and processes, by reducing the number of IdPs and IAM systems that are involved in managing the identities and access for multiple applications or systems. Consolidation of multiple providers can also help to avoid the issues or risks that might arise from having multiple IdPs and IAM systems, such as the inconsistency, redundancy, or conflict of the IAM policies and controls, or the inefficiency, vulnerability, or disruption of the IAM functions.

The other options are not the primary advantages of using a third-party identity service, but rather secondary or specific advantages for different aspects or scenarios of using a third-party identity service. Directory synchronization is an advantage of using a third-party identity service, but it is more relevant for the scenario where the organization has an existing directory service, such as LDAP or Active Directory, that stores and manages the user accounts and attributes, and wants to synchronize them with the third-party identity service, to enable the SSO or federation for the users. Web based logon is an advantage of using a third-party identity service, but it is more relevant for the aspect where the third-party identity service uses a web-based protocol, such as SAML or OAuth, to facilitate the SSO or federation for the users, by redirecting them to a web-based logon page, where they can enter their credentials or consent. Automated account management is an advantage of using a third-party identity service, but it is more relevant for the aspect where the third-party identity service provides the IAM functions, such as provisioning, deprovisioning, or updating, for the user accounts and access rights, using an automated or self-service mechanism, such as SCIM or JIT.

A warm site is the most cost effective solution for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours. A DR site is a backup facility that can be used to restore the normal operation of the organization’s IT systems and infrastructure after a disruption or disaster. A DR site can have different levels of readiness and functionality, depending on the organization’s recovery objectives and budget. The main types of DR sites are:

• Hot site: a DR site that is fully operational and equipped with the necessary hardware, software, telecommunication lines, and network connectivity to allow the organization to be up and running almost immediately. A hot site has all the required servers, workstations, and communications links, and can function as a branch office or data center that is online and connected to the production network. A hot site also has a backup of the data from the systems at the primary site, which may be replicated in real time or near real time. A hot site greatly reduces or eliminates downtime for the organization, but it is also very expensive to maintain and operate.
• Warm site: a DR site that is partially operational and equipped with some of the hardware, software, telecommunication lines, and network connectivity to allow the organization to be up and running within a short time. A warm site has some of the required servers, workstations, and communications links, and can function as a temporary office or data center that is offline or partially connected to the production network. A warm site may have a backup of the data from the systems at the primary site, but it is not updated or synchronized as frequently as a hot site. A warm site reduces downtime for the organization, but it is also less expensive than a hot site.
• Cold site: a DR site that is not operational and equipped with only the basic infrastructure and environmental support systems to allow the organization to be up and running within a long time. A cold site has none of the required servers, workstations, and communications links, and cannot function as an office or data center until they are installed and configured. A cold site does not have a backup of the data from the systems at the primary site, and it has to be restored from other sources, such as tapes or disks. A cold site increases downtime for the organization, but it is also the cheapest option among the DR sites.
• Mirror site: a DR site that is an exact replica of the primary site, with the same hardware, software, telecommunication lines, and network connectivity, and with the same data and applications. A mirror site is always online and synchronized with the primary site, and can take over the operation of the organization seamlessly in the event of a disruption or disaster. A mirror site eliminates downtime for the organization, but it is also the most expensive option among the DR sites.

A warm site is the most cost effective solution for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it can provide a balance between the recovery time and the recovery cost. A warm site can enable the organization to resume its critical functions and operations within a reasonable time frame, without spending too much on the DR site maintenance and operation. A warm site can also provide some flexibility and scalability for the organization to adjust its recovery strategies and resources according to its needs and priorities.

The other options are not the most cost effective solutions for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, but rather solutions that are either too costly or too slow for the organization’s recovery objectives and budget. A hot site is a solution that is too costly for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it requires the organization to invest a lot of money on the DR site equipment, software, and services, and to pay for the ongoing operational and maintenance costs. A hot site may be more suitable for the organization’s systems that cannot be unavailable for more than a few hours or minutes, or that have very high availability and performance requirements. A mirror site is a solution that is too costly for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it requires the organization to duplicate its entire primary site, with the same hardware, software, data, and applications, and to keep them online and synchronized at all times. A mirror site may be more suitable for the organization’s systems that cannot afford any downtime or data loss, or that have very strict compliance and regulatory requirements. A cold site is a solution that is too slow for a disaster recovery (DR) site given that the organization’s systems cannot be unavailable for more than 24 hours, because it requires the organization to spend a lot of time and effort on the DR site installation, configuration, and restoration, and to rely on other sources of backup data and applications. A cold site may be more suitable for the organization’s systems that can be unavailable for more than a few days or weeks, or that have very low criticality and priority.

 Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident is the first step in the incident response process. An incident is an event that violates or threatens the security, availability, integrity, or confidentiality of the IT systems or data. An incident response is a process that involves detecting, analyzing, containing, eradicating, recovering, and learning from an incident, using various methods and tools. An incident response can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and risk management of the IT systems and data by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps
• Enhancing the security and decision making of the IT systems and data by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting
• Increasing the security and improvement of the IT systems and data by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization
• Facilitating the compliance and alignment of the IT systems and data with the internal or external requirements and standards

Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident is the first step in the incident response process, because it can ensure that the incident is verified and validated, and that the incident response is initiated and escalated. A symptom is a sign or an indication that an incident may have occurred or is occurring, such as an alert, a log, or a report. Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident involves collecting and analyzing the relevant data and information from various sources, such as the IT systems, the network, the users, or the external parties, and determining whether an incident has actually happened or is happening, and how serious or urgent it is. Investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident can also help to:

• Prevent the false positives or negatives that might cause the incident response to be delayed or unnecessary
• Identify the scope and impact of the incident on the IT systems and data
• Notify and inform the appropriate stakeholders and authorities about the incident
• Activate and coordinate the incident response team and resources

The other options are not the first steps in the incident response process, but rather steps that should be done after or along with investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident. Determining the cause of the incident is a step that should be done after investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident, because it can ensure that the root cause and source of the incident are identified and analyzed, and that the incident response is directed and focused. Determining the cause of the incident involves examining and testing the affected IT systems and data, and tracing and tracking the origin and path of the incident, using various techniques and tools, such as forensics, malware analysis, or reverse engineering. Determining the cause of the incident can also help to:

• Understand the nature and behavior of the incident and the attacker
• Detect and resolve any issues or risks caused by the incident
• Prevent and mitigate any future incidents or attacks involving the same or similar cause
• Support and enable the legal or regulatory actions or investigations against the incident or the attacker

Disconnecting the system involved from the network is a step that should be done along with investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident, because it can ensure that the system is isolated and protected from any external or internal influences or interferences, and that the incident response is conducted in a safe and controlled environment. Disconnecting the system involved from the network can also help to:

• Prevent the incident from communicating or connecting with any other system or network, and potentially spreading or escalating the attack
• Prevent the incident from receiving or sending any commands or data, and potentially altering or deleting the evidence
• Prevent the incident from detecting or evading the incident response, and potentially hiding or destroying itself

Isolating and containing the system involved is a step that should be done after investigating all symptoms to confirm the incident, because it can ensure that the incident is confined and restricted, and that the incident response is continued and maintained. Isolating and containing the system involved involves applying and enforcing the appropriate security measures and controls to limit or stop the activity and impact of the incident on the IT systems and data, such as firewall rules, access policies, or encryption keys. Isolating and containing the system involved can also help to:

• Minimize the damage and loss caused by the incident on the IT systems and data
• Maximize the recovery and restoration of the IT systems and data
• Support and enable the eradication and removal of the incident from the IT systems and data
• Facilitate the learning and improvement of the IT systems and data from the incident

Minimization of the need for decision making during a crisis is the main benefit that a Business Continuity Plan/Disaster Recovery Plan (BCP/DRP) will provide. A BCP/DRP is a set of policies, procedures, and resources that enable an organization to continue or resume its critical functions and operations in the event of a disruption or disaster. A BCP/DRP can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the resilience and preparedness of the organization and its staff in handling a disruption or disaster
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the organization and its systems in recovering from a disruption or disaster
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the organization and its plans with the internal or external requirements and standards
• Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the organization and its plans by identifying and addressing any gaps, issues, or risks

Minimization of the need for decision making during a crisis is the main benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it can ensure that the organization and its staff have a clear and consistent guidance and direction on how to respond and act during a disruption or disaster, and avoid any confusion, uncertainty, or inconsistency that might worsen the situation or impact. A BCP/DRP can also help to reduce the stress and pressure on the organization and its staff during a crisis, and increase their confidence and competence in executing the plans.

The other options are not the benefits that a BCP/DRP will provide, but rather unrealistic or incorrect expectations or outcomes of a BCP/DRP. Guaranteed recovery of all business functions is not a benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it is not possible or feasible to recover all business functions after a disruption or disaster, especially if the disruption or disaster is severe or prolonged. A BCP/DRP can only prioritize and recover the most critical or essential business functions, and may have to suspend or terminate the less critical or non-essential business functions. Insurance against litigation following a disaster is not a benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it is not a guarantee or protection that the organization will not face any legal or regulatory consequences or liabilities after a disruption or disaster, especially if the disruption or disaster is caused by the organization’s negligence or misconduct. A BCP/DRP can only help to mitigate or reduce the legal or regulatory risks, and may have to comply with or report to the relevant authorities or parties. Protection from loss of organization resources is not a benefit that a BCP/DRP will provide, because it is not a prevention or avoidance of any damage or destruction of the organization’s assets or resources during a disruption or disaster, especially if the disruption or disaster is physical or natural. A BCP/DRP can only help to restore or replace the lost or damaged assets or resources, and may have to incur some costs or losses.

 A continuous information security monitoring program can best reduce risk through encompassing people, process, and technology. A continuous information security monitoring program is a process that involves maintaining the ongoing awareness of the security status, events, and activities of a system or network, by collecting, analyzing, and reporting the security data and information, using various methods and tools. A continuous information security monitoring program can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and risk management of the system or network by identifying and addressing the security weaknesses and gaps
• Enhancing the security and decision making of the system or network by providing the evidence and information for the security analysis, evaluation, and reporting
• Increasing the security and improvement of the system or network by providing the feedback and input for the security response, remediation, and optimization
• Facilitating the compliance and alignment of the system or network with the internal or external requirements and standards

A continuous information security monitoring program can best reduce risk through encompassing people, process, and technology, because it can ensure that the continuous information security monitoring program is holistic and comprehensive, and that it covers all the aspects and elements of the system or network security. People, process, and technology are the three pillars of a continuous information security monitoring program, and they represent the following:

• People: the human resources that are involved in the continuous information security monitoring program, such as the security analysts, the system administrators, the management, and the users. People are responsible for defining the security objectives and requirements, implementing and operating the security tools and controls, and monitoring and responding to the security events and incidents.
• Process: the procedures and policies that are followed in the continuous information security monitoring program, such as the security standards and guidelines, the security roles and responsibilities, the security workflows and tasks, and the security metrics and indicators. Process is responsible for establishing and maintaining the security governance and compliance, ensuring the security consistency and efficiency, and measuring and evaluating the security performance and effectiveness.
• Technology: the tools and systems that are used in the continuous information security monitoring program, such as the security sensors and agents, the security loggers and collectors, the security analyzers and correlators, and the security dashboards and reports. Technology is responsible for supporting and enabling the security functions and capabilities, providing the security visibility and awareness, and delivering the security data and information.

The other options are not the best ways to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but rather specific or partial ways that can contribute to the risk reduction. Collecting security events and correlating them to identify anomalies is a specific way to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but it is not the best way, because it only focuses on one aspect of the security data and information, and it does not address the other aspects, such as the security objectives and requirements, the security controls and measures, and the security feedback and improvement. Facilitating system-wide visibility into the activities of critical user accounts is a partial way to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but it is not the best way, because it only covers one element of the system or network security, and it does not cover the other elements, such as the security threats and vulnerabilities, the security incidents and impacts, and the security response and remediation. Logging both scheduled and unscheduled system changes is a specific way to reduce risk through a continuous information security monitoring program, but it is not the best way, because it only focuses on one type of the security events and activities, and it does not focus on the other types, such as the security alerts and notifications, the security analysis and correlation, and the security reporting and documentation.

A Business Continuity Plan (BCP) is considered to be valid when it has been validated by realistic exercises. A BCP is a part of a BCP/DRP that focuses on ensuring the continuous operation of the organization’s critical business functions and processes during and after a disruption or disaster. A BCP should include various components, such as:

• Business impact analysis: a process that identifies and prioritizes the critical business functions and processes, and assesses the potential impacts and risks of a disruption or disaster on them
• Recovery strategies: a process that defines and selects the appropriate methods and resources to recover the critical business functions and processes, such as alternate sites, backup systems, or recovery teams
• BCP document: a document that outlines and details the scope, purpose, and features of the BCP, such as the roles and responsibilities, the recovery procedures, and the contact information
• Testing, training, and exercises: a process that evaluates and validates the effectiveness and readiness of the BCP, and educates and trains the relevant stakeholders, such as the staff, the management, and the customers, on the BCP and their roles and responsibilities
• Maintenance and review: a process that monitors and updates the BCP, and addresses any changes or issues that might affect the BCP, such as the business requirements, the threat landscape, or the feedback and lessons learned

A BCP is considered to be valid when it has been validated by realistic exercises, because it can ensure that the BCP is practical and applicable, and that it can achieve the desired outcomes and objectives in a real-life scenario. Realistic exercises are a type of testing, training, and exercises that involve performing and practicing the BCP with the relevant stakeholders, using simulated or hypothetical scenarios, such as a fire drill, a power outage, or a cyberattack. Realistic exercises can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the confidence and competence of the organization and its staff in handling a disruption or disaster
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the organization and its systems in recovering from a disruption or disaster
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the organization and its plans with the internal or external requirements and standards
• Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the organization and its plans by identifying and addressing any gaps, issues, or risks

The other options are not the criteria for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather the steps or parties that are involved in developing or approving a BCP. When it has been validated by the Business Continuity (BC) manager is not a criterion for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather a step that is involved in developing a BCP. The BC manager is the person who is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the BCP activities and processes, such as the business impact analysis, the recovery strategies, the BCP document, the testing, training, and exercises, and the maintenance and review. The BC manager can validate the BCP by reviewing and verifying the BCP components and outcomes, and ensuring that they meet the BCP standards and objectives. However, the validation by the BC manager is not enough to consider the BCP to be valid, as it does not test or demonstrate the BCP in a realistic scenario. When it has been validated by the board of directors is not a criterion for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather a party that is involved in approving a BCP. The board of directors is the group of people who are elected by the shareholders to represent their interests and to oversee the strategic direction and governance of the organization. The board of directors can approve the BCP by endorsing and supporting the BCP components and outcomes, and allocating the necessary resources and funds for the BCP. However, the approval by the board of directors is not enough to consider the BCP to be valid, as it does not test or demonstrate the BCP in a realistic scenario. When it has been validated by all threat scenarios is not a criterion for considering a BCP to be valid, but rather an unrealistic or impossible expectation for validating a BCP. A threat scenario is a description or a simulation of a possible or potential disruption or disaster that might affect the organization’s critical business functions and processes, such as a natural hazard, a human error, or a technical failure. A threat scenario can be used to test and validate the BCP by measuring and evaluating the BCP’s performance and effectiveness in responding and recovering from the disruption or disaster. However, it is not possible or feasible to validate the BCP by all threat scenarios, as there are too many or unknown threat scenarios that might occur, and some threat scenarios might be too severe or complex to simulate or test. Therefore, the BCP should be validated by the most likely or relevant threat scenarios, and not by all threat scenarios.

Simulation is the type of business continuity test that includes assessment of resilience to internal and external risks without endangering live operations. Business continuity is the ability of an organization to maintain or resume its critical functions and operations in the event of a disruption or disaster. Business continuity testing is the process of evaluating and validating the effectiveness and readiness of the business continuity plan (BCP) and the disaster recovery plan (DRP) through various methods and scenarios. Business continuity testing can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the confidence and competence of the organization and its staff in handling a disruption or disaster
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the organization and its systems in recovering from a disruption or disaster
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the organization and its plans with the internal or external requirements and standards
• Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the organization and its plans by identifying and addressing any gaps, issues, or risks

There are different types of business continuity tests, depending on the scope, purpose, and complexity of the test. Some of the common types are:

• Walkthrough: a type of business continuity test that involves reviewing and discussing the BCP and DRP with the relevant stakeholders, such as the business continuity team, the management, and the staff. A walkthrough can provide a basic and qualitative assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to familiarize and educate the stakeholders with the plans and their roles and responsibilities.
• Simulation: a type of business continuity test that involves performing and practicing the BCP and DRP with the relevant stakeholders, using simulated or hypothetical scenarios, such as a fire drill, a power outage, or a cyberattack. A simulation can provide a realistic and quantitative assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to test and train the stakeholders with the plans and their actions and reactions.
• Parallel: a type of business continuity test that involves activating and operating the alternate site or system, while maintaining the normal operations at the primary site or system. A parallel test can provide a comprehensive and comparative assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to verify and validate the functionality and compatibility of the alternate site or system.
• Full interruption: a type of business continuity test that involves shutting down and transferring the normal operations from the primary site or system to the alternate site or system. A full interruption test can provide a conclusive and definitive assessment of the BCP and DRP, and can help to evaluate and measure the impact and effectiveness of the plans.

Simulation is the type of business continuity test that includes assessment of resilience to internal and external risks without endangering live operations, because it can simulate various types of risks, such as natural, human, or technical, and assess how the organization and its systems can cope and recover from them, without actually causing any harm or disruption to the live operations. Simulation can also help to identify and mitigate any potential risks that might affect the live operations, and to improve the resilience and preparedness of the organization and its systems.

The other options are not the types of business continuity tests that include assessment of resilience to internal and external risks without endangering live operations, but rather types that have other objectives or effects. Walkthrough is a type of business continuity test that does not include assessment of resilience to internal and external risks, but rather a review and discussion of the BCP and DRP, without any actual testing or practice. Parallel is a type of business continuity test that does not endanger live operations, but rather maintains them, while activating and operating the alternate site or system. Full interruption is a type of business continuity test that does endanger live operations, by shutting them down and transferring them to the alternate site or system.

Recovery strategies of a Disaster Recovery planning (DRP) must be aligned with the cost/benefit analysis and business objectives. A DRP is a part of a BCP/DRP that focuses on restoring the normal operation of the organization’s IT systems and infrastructure after a disruption or disaster. A DRP should include various components, such as:

• Risk assessment: a process that identifies and evaluates the potential threats and vulnerabilities that might affect the IT systems and infrastructure, and estimates the likelihood and impact of a disruption or disaster
• Recovery objectives: a process that defines and quantifies the acceptable levels of recovery for the IT systems and infrastructure, such as the recovery point objective (RPO), which is the maximum amount of data loss that can be tolerated, and the recovery time objective (RTO), which is the maximum amount of downtime that can be tolerated
• Recovery strategies: a process that selects and implements the appropriate methods and resources to recover the IT systems and infrastructure, such as backup, replication, redundancy, or failover
• DRP document: a document that outlines and details the scope, purpose, and features of the DRP, such as the roles and responsibilities, the recovery procedures, and the contact information
• Testing, training, and exercises: a process that evaluates and validates the effectiveness and readiness of the DRP, and educates and trains the relevant stakeholders, such as the IT staff, the management, and the users, on the DRP and their roles and responsibilities
• Maintenance and review: a process that monitors and updates the DRP, and addresses any changes or issues that might affect the DRP, such as the IT requirements, the threat landscape, or the feedback and lessons learned

Recovery strategies of a DRP must be aligned with the cost/benefit analysis and business objectives, because it can ensure that the DRP is feasible and suitable, and that it can achieve the desired outcomes and objectives in a cost-effective and efficient manner. A cost/benefit analysis is a technique that compares the costs and benefits of different recovery strategies, and determines the optimal one that provides the best value for money. A business objective is a goal or a target that the organization wants to achieve through its IT systems and infrastructure, such as increasing the productivity, profitability, or customer satisfaction. A recovery strategy that is aligned with the cost/benefit analysis and business objectives can help to:

• Optimize the use and allocation of the IT resources and funds for the recovery
• Minimize the negative impacts and risks of a disruption or disaster on the IT systems and infrastructure
• Maximize the positive outcomes and benefits of the recovery for the IT systems and infrastructure
• Support and enable the achievement of the organizational goals and targets through the IT systems and infrastructure

The other options are not the factors that the recovery strategies of a DRP must be aligned with, but rather factors that should be considered or addressed when developing or implementing the recovery strategies of a DRP. Hardware and software compatibility issues are factors that should be considered when developing the recovery strategies of a DRP, because they can affect the functionality and interoperability of the IT systems and infrastructure, and may require additional resources or adjustments to resolve them. Applications’ criticality and downtime tolerance are factors that should be addressed when implementing the recovery strategies of a DRP, because they can determine the priority and urgency of the recovery for different applications, and may require different levels of recovery objectives and resources. Budget constraints and requirements are factors that should be considered when developing the recovery strategies of a DRP, because they can limit the availability and affordability of the IT resources and funds for the recovery, and may require trade-offs or compromises to balance them.

Ensuring accountability for changes to the environment is the primary reason for implementing change management. Change management is a process that ensures that any changes to the system or network environment, such as the hardware, software, configuration, or documentation, are planned, approved, implemented, and documented in a controlled and consistent manner. Change management can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and reliability of the system or network environment by preventing or reducing the errors, conflicts, or disruptions that might occur due to the changes
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system or network environment by optimizing the resources and functions
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the system or network environment with the internal or external requirements and standards
• Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the system or network environment by tracking and logging the changes and their outcomes

Ensuring accountability for changes to the environment is the primary reason for implementing change management, because it can ensure that the changes are authorized, justified, and traceable, and that the parties involved in the changes are responsible and accountable for their actions and results. Accountability can also help to deter or detect any unauthorized or malicious changes that might compromise the system or network environment.

The other options are not the primary reasons for implementing change management, but rather secondary or specific reasons for different aspects or phases of change management. Certifying and approving releases to the environment is a reason for implementing change management, but it is more relevant for the approval phase of change management, which is the phase that involves reviewing and validating the changes and their impacts, and granting or denying the permission to proceed with the changes. Providing version rollbacks for system changes is a reason for implementing change management, but it is more relevant for the implementation phase of change management, which is the phase that involves executing and monitoring the changes and their effects, and providing the backup and recovery options for the changes. Ensuring that all applications are approved is a reason for implementing change management, but it is more relevant for the application changes, which are the changes that affect the software components or services that provide the functionality or logic of the system or network environment.

 Insufficient Service Level Agreement (SLA) would be the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit. A Web hosting solution is a service that provides the infrastructure, resources, and tools for hosting and maintaining a website or a web application on the internet. A Web hosting solution can offer various benefits, such as:

• Improving the availability and accessibility of the website or web application by ensuring that it is online and reachable at all times
• Enhancing the performance and scalability of the website or web application by optimizing the speed, load, and capacity of the web server
• Increasing the security and reliability of the website or web application by providing the backup, recovery, and protection of the web data and content
• Reducing the cost and complexity of the website or web application by outsourcing the web hosting and management to a third-party provider

A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is a contract or an agreement that defines the expectations, responsibilities, and obligations of the parties involved in a service, such as the service provider and the service consumer. An SLA can include various components, such as:

• Service description: a detailed explanation of the scope, purpose, and features of the service
• Service level objectives: a set of measurable and quantifiable goals or targets for the service quality, performance, and availability
• Service level indicators: a set of metrics or parameters that are used to monitor and evaluate the service level objectives
• Service level reporting: a process that involves collecting, analyzing, and communicating the service level indicators and objectives
• Service level penalties: a set of consequences or actions that are applied when the service level objectives are not met or violated

Insufficient SLA would be the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it could mean that the SLA does not include or specify the appropriate service level indicators or objectives for the Web hosting solution, or that the SLA does not provide or enforce the adequate service level reporting or penalties for the Web hosting solution. This could affect the ability of the organization to measure and assess the Web hosting solution quality, performance, and availability, and to identify and address any issues or risks in the Web hosting solution.

The other options are not the most probable causes for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, but rather the factors that could affect or improve the Web hosting solution in other ways. Absence of a Business Intelligence (BI) solution is a factor that could affect the ability of the organization to analyze and utilize the data and information from the Web hosting solution, such as the web traffic, behavior, or conversion. A BI solution is a system that involves the collection, integration, processing, and presentation of the data and information from various sources, such as the Web hosting solution, to support the decision making and planning of the organization. However, absence of a BI solution is not the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it does not affect the definition or specification of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution, but rather the analysis or usage of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution. Inadequate cost modeling is a factor that could affect the ability of the organization to estimate and optimize the cost and value of the Web hosting solution, such as the web hosting fees, maintenance costs, or return on investment. A cost model is a tool or a method that helps the organization to calculate and compare the cost and value of the Web hosting solution, and to identify and implement the best or most efficient Web hosting solution. However, inadequate cost modeling is not the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it does not affect the definition or specification of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution, but rather the estimation or optimization of the cost and value of the Web hosting solution. Improper deployment of the Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a factor that could affect the ability of the organization to design and develop the Web hosting solution, such as the web services, components, or interfaces. A SOA is a software architecture that involves the modularization, standardization, and integration of the software components or services that provide the functionality or logic of the Web hosting solution. A SOA can offer various benefits, such as:

• Improving the flexibility and scalability of the Web hosting solution by allowing the addition, modification, or removal of the software components or services without affecting the whole Web hosting solution
• Enhancing the interoperability and compatibility of the Web hosting solution by enabling the communication and interaction of the software components or services across different platforms and technologies
• Increasing the reusability and maintainability of the Web hosting solution by reducing the duplication and complexity of the software components or services

However, improper deployment of the SOA is not the most probable cause for an organization to lack the ability to properly establish performance indicators for its Web hosting solution during an audit, because it does not affect the definition or specification of the performance indicators for the Web hosting solution, but rather the design or development of the Web hosting solution.

 Making a copy of the hard drive should be the first action to protect the chain of evidence when a desktop computer is involved. A chain of evidence, also known as a chain of custody, is a process that documents and preserves the integrity and authenticity of the evidence collected from a crime scene, such as a desktop computer. A chain of evidence should include information such as:

• The identity and role of the person who collected, handled, or transferred the evidence
• The date and time of the collection, handling, or transfer of the evidence
• The location and condition of the evidence
• The method and tool used to collect, handle, or transfer the evidence
• The signature or seal of the person who collected, handled, or transferred the evidence

Making a copy of the hard drive should be the first action to protect the chain of evidence when a desktop computer is involved, because it can ensure that the original hard drive is not altered, damaged, or destroyed during the forensic analysis, and that the copy can be used as a reliable and admissible source of evidence. Making a copy of the hard drive should also involve using a write blocker, which is a device or a software that prevents any modification or deletion of the data on the hard drive, and generating a hash value, which is a unique and fixed identifier that can verify the integrity and consistency of the data on the hard drive.

The other options are not the first actions to protect the chain of evidence when a desktop computer is involved, but rather actions that should be done after or along with making a copy of the hard drive. Taking the computer to a forensic lab is an action that should be done after making a copy of the hard drive, because it can ensure that the computer is transported and stored in a secure and controlled environment, and that the forensic analysis is conducted by qualified and authorized personnel. Starting documenting is an action that should be done along with making a copy of the hard drive, because it can ensure that the chain of evidence is maintained and recorded throughout the forensic process, and that the evidence can be traced and verified. Turning off the computer is an action that should be done after making a copy of the hard drive, because it can ensure that the computer is powered down and disconnected from any network or device, and that the computer is protected from any further damage or tampering.

The most probable security feature of Java preventing the program from operating as intended is least privilege. Least privilege is a principle that states that a subject (such as a user, a process, or a program) should only have the minimum amount of access or permissions that are necessary to perform its function or task. Least privilege can help to reduce the attack surface and the potential damage of a system or network, by limiting the exposure and impact of a subject in case of a compromise or misuse.

Java implements the principle of least privilege through its security model, which consists of several components, such as:

• The Java Virtual Machine (JVM): a software layer that executes the Java bytecode and provides an abstraction from the underlying hardware and operating system. The JVM enforces the security rules and restrictions on the Java programs, such as the memory protection, the bytecode verification, and the exception handling.
• The Java Security Manager: a class that defines and controls the security policy and permissions for the Java programs. The Java Security Manager can be configured and customized by the system administrator or the user, and can grant or deny the access or actions of the Java programs, such as the file I/O, the network communication, or the system properties.
• The Java Security Policy: a file that specifies the security permissions for the Java programs, based on the code source and the code signer. The Java Security Policy can be defined and modified by the system administrator or the user, and can assign different levels of permissions to different Java programs, such as the trusted or the untrusted ones.
• The Java Security Sandbox: a mechanism that isolates and restricts the Java programs that are downloaded or executed from untrusted sources, such as the web or the network. The Java Security Sandbox applies the default or the minimal security permissions to the untrusted Java programs, and prevents them from accessing or modifying the local resources or data, such as the files, the databases, or the registry.

In this question, the Java program is being developed to read a file from computer A and write it to computer B, using a third computer C. This means that the Java program needs to have the permissions to perform the file I/O and the network communication operations, which are considered as sensitive or risky actions by the Java security model. However, if the Java program is running on computer C with the default or the minimal security permissions, such as in the Java Security Sandbox, then it will not be able to perform these operations, and the program will not work as expected. Therefore, the most probable security feature of Java preventing the program from operating as intended is least privilege, which limits the access or permissions of the Java program based on its source, signer, or policy.

The other options are not the security features of Java preventing the program from operating as intended, but rather concepts or techniques that are related to security in general or in other contexts. Privilege escalation is a technique that allows a subject to gain higher or unauthorized access or permissions than what it is supposed to have, by exploiting a vulnerability or a flaw in a system or network. Privilege escalation can help an attacker to perform malicious actions or to access sensitive resources or data, by bypassing the security controls or restrictions. Defense in depth is a concept that states that a system or network should have multiple layers or levels of security, to provide redundancy and resilience in case of a breach or an attack. Defense in depth can help to protect a system or network from various threats and risks, by using different types of security measures and controls, such as the physical, the technical, or the administrative ones. Privilege bracketing is a technique that allows a subject to temporarily elevate or lower its access or permissions, to perform a specific function or task, and then return to its original or normal level. Privilege bracketing can help to reduce the exposure and impact of a subject, by minimizing the time and scope of its higher or lower access or permissions.

Testing for the security patch level of the environment is the web application control that should be put into place to prevent exploitation of Operating System (OS) bugs. OS bugs are errors or defects in the code or logic of the OS that can cause the OS to malfunction or behave unexpectedly. OS bugs can be exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access, disrupt business operations, or steal or leak sensitive data. Testing for the security patch level of the environment is the web application control that should be put into place to prevent exploitation of OS bugs, because it can provide several benefits, such as:

• Detecting and resolving any vulnerabilities or issues caused by the OS bugs by applying the latest security patches or updates from the OS developers or vendors
• Enhancing the security and performance of the web applications by using the most secure and efficient version of the OS that supports the web applications
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the web applications with the security policies and regulations that are applicable to the web applications
• Improving the compatibility and interoperability of the web applications with the other systems or platforms that interact with the web applications

The other options are not the web application controls that should be put into place to prevent exploitation of OS bugs, but rather web application controls that can prevent or mitigate other types of web application attacks or issues. Checking arguments in function calls is a web application control that can prevent or mitigate buffer overflow attacks, which are attacks that exploit the vulnerability of the web application code that does not properly check the size or length of the input data that is passed to a function or a variable, and overwrite the adjacent memory locations with malicious code or data. Including logging functions is a web application control that can prevent or mitigate unauthorized access or modification attacks, which are attacks that exploit the lack of or weak authentication or authorization mechanisms of the web applications, and access or modify the web application data or functionality without proper permission or verification. Digitally signing each application module is a web application control that can prevent or mitigate code injection or tampering attacks, which are attacks that exploit the vulnerability of the web application code that does not properly validate or sanitize the input data that is executed or interpreted by the web application, and inject or modify the web application code with malicious code or data.

The configuration management and control task of the certification and accreditation process is incorporated in the system acquisition and development phase of the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is a process that involves planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, operating, and maintaining a system, using various models and methodologies, such as waterfall, spiral, agile, or DevSecOps. The SDLC can be divided into several phases, each with its own objectives and activities, such as:

• System initiation: This phase involves defining the scope, purpose, and objectives of the system, identifying the stakeholders and their needs and expectations, and establishing the project plan and budget.
• System acquisition and development: This phase involves designing the architecture and components of the system, selecting and procuring the hardware and software resources, developing and coding the system functionality and features, and integrating and testing the system modules and interfaces.
• System implementation: This phase involves deploying and installing the system to the production environment, migrating and converting the data and applications from the legacy system, training and educating the users and staff on the system operation and maintenance, and evaluating and validating the system performance and effectiveness.
• System operations and maintenance: This phase involves operating and monitoring the system functionality and availability, maintaining and updating the system hardware and software, resolving and troubleshooting any issues or problems, and enhancing and optimizing the system features and capabilities.

The certification and accreditation process is a process that involves assessing and verifying the security and compliance of a system, and authorizing and approving the system operation and maintenance, using various standards and frameworks, such as NIST SP 800-37 or ISO/IEC 27001. The certification and accreditation process can be divided into several tasks, each with its own objectives and activities, such as:

• Security categorization: This task involves determining the security level and impact of the system and its data, based on the confidentiality, integrity, and availability criteria, and applying the appropriate security controls and measures.
• Security planning: This task involves defining the security objectives and requirements of the system, identifying the roles and responsibilities of the security stakeholders, and developing and documenting the security plan and policy.
• Security implementation: This task involves implementing and enforcing the security controls and measures for the system, according to the security plan and policy, and ensuring the security functionality and compatibility of the system.
• Security assessment: This task involves evaluating and testing the security effectiveness and compliance of the system, using various techniques and tools, such as audits, reviews, scans, or penetration tests, and identifying and reporting any security weaknesses or gaps.
• Security authorization: This task involves reviewing and approving the security assessment results and recommendations, and granting or denying the authorization for the system operation and maintenance, based on the risk and impact analysis and the security objectives and requirements.
• Security monitoring: This task involves monitoring and updating the security status and activities of the system, using various methods and tools, such as logs, alerts, or reports, and addressing and resolving any security issues or changes.

The configuration management and control task of the certification and accreditation process is incorporated in the system acquisition and development phase of the SDLC, because it can ensure that the system design and development are consistent and compliant with the security objectives and requirements, and that the system changes are controlled and documented. Configuration management and control is a process that involves establishing and maintaining the baseline and the inventory of the system components and resources, such as hardware, software, data, or documentation, and tracking and recording any modifications or updates to the system components and resources, using various techniques and tools, such as version control, change control, or configuration audits. Configuration management and control can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the quality and security of the system design and development by identifying and addressing any errors or inconsistencies
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system design and development by optimizing the use and allocation of the system components and resources
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the system design and development with the security objectives and requirements by applying and enforcing the security controls and measures
• Facilitating the monitoring and improvement of the system design and development by providing the evidence and information for the security assessment and authorization

The other options are not the phases of the SDLC that incorporate the configuration management and control task of the certification and accreditation process, but rather phases that involve other tasks of the certification and accreditation process. System operations and maintenance is a phase of the SDLC that incorporates the security monitoring task of the certification and accreditation process, because it can ensure that the system operation and maintenance are consistent and compliant with the security objectives and requirements, and that the system security is updated and improved. System initiation is a phase of the SDLC that incorporates the security categorization and security planning tasks of the certification and accreditation process, because it can ensure that the system scope and objectives are defined and aligned with the security objectives and requirements, and that the security plan and policy are developed and documented. System implementation is a phase of the SDLC that incorporates the security assessment and security authorization tasks of the certification and accreditation process, because it can ensure that the system deployment and installation are evaluated and verified for the security effectiveness and compliance, and that the system operation and maintenance are authorized and approved based on the risk and impact analysis and the security objectives and requirements.

 Testing all new software in a segregated environment is the best method to prevent malware from being introduced into a production environment. Malware is any malicious software that can harm or compromise the security, availability, integrity, or confidentiality of a system or data. Malware can be introduced into a production environment through various sources, such as software downloads, updates, patches, or installations. Testing all new software in a segregated environment involves verifying and validating the functionality and security of the software before deploying it to the production environment, using a separate system or network that is isolated and protected from the production environment. Testing all new software in a segregated environment can provide several benefits, such as:

• Preventing the infection or propagation of malware to the production environment
• Detecting and resolving any issues or risks caused by the software
• Ensuring the compatibility and interoperability of the software with the production environment
• Supporting and enabling the quality assurance and improvement of the software

The other options are not the best methods to prevent malware from being introduced into a production environment, but rather methods that can reduce or mitigate the risk of malware, but not eliminate it. Purchasing software from a limited list of retailers is a method that can reduce the risk of malware from being introduced into a production environment, but not prevent it. This method involves obtaining software only from trusted and reputable sources, such as official vendors or distributors, that can provide some assurance of the quality and security of the software. However, this method does not guarantee that the software is free of malware, as it may still contain hidden or embedded malware, or it may be tampered with or compromised during the delivery or installation process. Verifying the hash key or certificate key of all updates is a method that can reduce the risk of malware from being introduced into a production environment, but not prevent it. This method involves checking the authenticity and integrity of the software updates, patches, or installations, by comparing the hash key or certificate key of the software with the expected or published value, using cryptographic techniques and tools. However, this method does not guarantee that the software is free of malware, as it may still contain malware that is not detected or altered by the hash key or certificate key, or it may be subject to a man-in-the-middle attack or a replay attack that can intercept or modify the software or the key. Not permitting programs, patches, or updates from the Internet is a method that can reduce the risk of malware from being introduced into a production environment, but not prevent it. This method involves restricting or blocking the access or download of software from the Internet, which is a common and convenient source of malware, by applying and enforcing the appropriate security policies and controls, such as firewall rules, antivirus software, or web filters. However, this method does not guarantee that the software is free of malware, as it may still be obtained or infected from other sources, such as removable media, email attachments, or network shares.

The primary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction is license agreements requiring release of modified code. Open source software is software that uses publicly available source code, which can be seen, modified, and distributed by anyone. Open source software has some advantages, such as being affordable and flexible, but it also has some disadvantages, such as being potentially insecure or unsupported.

One of the main disadvantages of using open source software in a commercial software construction is the license agreements that govern the use and distribution of the open source software. License agreements are legal contracts that specify the rights and obligations of the parties involved in the software, such as the original authors, the developers, and the users. License agreements can vary in terms of their terms and conditions, such as the scope, the duration, or the fees of the software.

Some of the common types of license agreements for open source software are:

• Permissive licenses: license agreements that allow the developers and users to freely use, modify, and distribute the open source software, with minimal or no restrictions. Examples of permissive licenses are the MIT License, the Apache License, or the BSD License.
• Copyleft licenses: license agreements that require the developers and users to share and distribute the open source software and any modifications or derivatives of it, under the same or compatible license terms and conditions. Examples of copyleft licenses are the GNU General Public License (GPL), the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), or the Mozilla Public License (MPL).
• Mixed licenses: license agreements that combine the elements of permissive and copyleft licenses, and may apply different license terms and conditions to different parts or components of the open source software. Examples of mixed licenses are the Eclipse Public License (EPL), the Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL), or the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL).

The primary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction is license agreements requiring release of modified code, which are usually associated with copyleft licenses. This means that if a commercial software construction uses or incorporates open source software that is licensed under a copyleft license, then it must also release its own source code and any modifications or derivatives of it, under the same or compatible copyleft license. This can pose a significant risk for the commercial software construction, as it may lose its competitive advantage, intellectual property, or revenue, by disclosing its source code and allowing others to use, modify, or distribute it.

The other options are not the primary risks with using open source software in a commercial software construction, but rather secondary or minor risks that may or may not apply to the open source software. Lack of software documentation is a secondary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction, as it may affect the quality, usability, or maintainability of the open source software, but it does not necessarily affect the rights or obligations of the commercial software construction. Expiration of the license agreement is a minor risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction, as it may affect the availability or continuity of the open source software, but it is unlikely to happen, as most open source software licenses are perpetual or indefinite. Costs associated with support of the software is a secondary risk with using open source software in a commercial software construction, as it may affect the reliability, security, or performance of the open source software, but it can be mitigated or avoided by choosing the open source software that has adequate or alternative support options.

 Software security functional requirements must be defined after the business functional analysis and the data security categorization have been performed in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is a process that involves planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, operating, and maintaining a system, using various models and methodologies, such as waterfall, spiral, agile, or DevSecOps. The SDLC can be divided into several phases, each with its own objectives and activities, such as:

• System initiation: This phase involves defining the scope, purpose, and objectives of the system, identifying the stakeholders and their needs and expectations, and establishing the project plan and budget.
• System acquisition and development: This phase involves designing the architecture and components of the system, selecting and procuring the hardware and software resources, developing and coding the system functionality and features, and integrating and testing the system modules and interfaces.
• System implementation: This phase involves deploying and installing the system to the production environment, migrating and converting the data and applications from the legacy system, training and educating the users and staff on the system operation and maintenance, and evaluating and validating the system performance and effectiveness.
• System operations and maintenance: This phase involves operating and monitoring the system functionality and availability, maintaining and updating the system hardware and software, resolving and troubleshooting any issues or problems, and enhancing and optimizing the system features and capabilities.

Software security functional requirements are the specific and measurable security features and capabilities that the system must provide to meet the security objectives and requirements. Software security functional requirements are derived from the business functional analysis and the data security categorization, which are two tasks that are performed in the system initiation phase of the SDLC. The business functional analysis is the process of identifying and documenting the business functions and processes that the system must support and enable, such as the inputs, outputs, workflows, and tasks. The data security categorization is the process of determining the security level and impact of the system and its data, based on the confidentiality, integrity, and availability criteria, and applying the appropriate security controls and measures. Software security functional requirements must be defined after the business functional analysis and the data security categorization have been performed, because they can ensure that the system design and development are consistent and compliant with the security objectives and requirements, and that the system security is aligned and integrated with the business functions and processes.

The other options are not the phases of the SDLC when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather phases that involve other tasks or activities related to the system design and development. After the system preliminary design has been developed and the data security categorization has been performed is not the phase when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather the phase when the system architecture and components are designed, based on the system scope and objectives, and the data security categorization is verified and validated. After the vulnerability analysis has been performed and before the system detailed design begins is not the phase when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather the phase when the system design and components are evaluated and tested for the security effectiveness and compliance, and the system detailed design is developed, based on the system architecture and components. After the system preliminary design has been developed and before the data security categorization begins is not the phase when the software security functional requirements must be defined, but rather the phase when the system architecture and components are designed, based on the system scope and objectives, and the data security categorization is initiated and planned.

Migrating to newer, supported applications where possible is the best approach to addressing security issues in legacy web applications. Legacy web applications are web applications that are outdated, unsupported, or incompatible with the current technologies and standards. Legacy web applications may have various security issues, such as:

• Vulnerabilities and bugs that are not fixed or patched by the developers or vendors
• Weak or obsolete encryption and authentication mechanisms that are easily broken or bypassed by attackers
• Lack of compliance with the security policies and regulations that are applicable to the web applications
• Incompatibility or interoperability issues with the newer web browsers, operating systems, or platforms that are used by the users or clients

Migrating to newer, supported applications where possible is the best approach to addressing security issues in legacy web applications, because it can provide several benefits, such as:

• Enhancing the security and performance of the web applications by using the latest technologies and standards that are more secure and efficient
• Reducing the risk and impact of the web application attacks by eliminating or minimizing the vulnerabilities and bugs that are present in the legacy web applications
• Increasing the compliance and alignment of the web applications with the security policies and regulations that are applicable to the web applications
• Improving the compatibility and interoperability of the web applications with the newer web browsers, operating systems, or platforms that are used by the users or clients

The other options are not the best approaches to addressing security issues in legacy web applications, but rather approaches that can mitigate or remediate the security issues, but not eliminate or prevent them. Debugging the security issues is an approach that can mitigate the security issues in legacy web applications, but not the best approach, because it involves identifying and fixing the errors or defects in the code or logic of the web applications, which may be difficult or impossible to do for the legacy web applications that are outdated or unsupported. Conducting a security assessment is an approach that can remediate the security issues in legacy web applications, but not the best approach, because it involves evaluating and testing the security effectiveness and compliance of the web applications, using various techniques and tools, such as audits, reviews, scans, or penetration tests, and identifying and reporting any security weaknesses or gaps, which may not be sufficient or feasible to do for the legacy web applications that are incompatible or obsolete. Protecting the legacy application with a web application firewall is an approach that can mitigate the security issues in legacy web applications, but not the best approach, because it involves deploying and configuring a web application firewall, which is a security device or software that monitors and filters the web traffic between the web applications and the users or clients, and blocks or allows the web requests or responses based on the predefined rules or policies, which may not be effective or efficient to do for the legacy web applications that have weak or outdated encryption or authentication mechanisms.

 Implementing logical network segmentation at the switches is the most effective layer of security the organization could have implemented to mitigate the attacker’s ability to gain further information. Logical network segmentation is the process of dividing a network into smaller subnetworks or segments based on criteria such as function, location, or security level. Logical network segmentation can be implemented at the switches, which are devices that operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and forward data packets based on the MAC addresses. Logical network segmentation can provide several benefits, such as:

• Isolating network traffic and reducing congestion and collisions
• Enhancing performance and efficiency of the network
• Improving security and confidentiality of the network
• Restricting the scope and impact of attacks
• Enforcing access control and security policies
• Facilitating monitoring and auditing of the network

Logical network segmentation can mitigate the attacker’s ability to gain further information by limiting the visibility and access of the sniffer to the segment where it is installed. A sniffer is a tool that captures and analyzes the data packets that are transmitted over a network. A sniffer can be used for legitimate purposes, such as troubleshooting, testing, or monitoring the network, or for malicious purposes, such as eavesdropping, stealing, or modifying the data. A sniffer can only capture the data packets that are within its broadcast domain, which is the set of devices that can communicate with each other without a router. By implementing logical network segmentation at the switches, the organization can create multiple broadcast domains and isolate the sensitive or critical data from the compromised segment. This way, the attacker can only see the data packets that belong to the same segment as the sniffer, and not the data packets that belong to other segments. This can prevent the attacker from gaining further information or accessing other resources on the network.

The other options are not the most effective layers of security the organization could have implemented to mitigate the attacker’s ability to gain further information, but rather layers that have other limitations or drawbacks. Implementing packet filtering on the network firewalls is not the most effective layer of security, because packet filtering only examines the network layer header of the data packets, such as the source and destination IP addresses, and does not inspect the payload or the content of the data. Packet filtering can also be bypassed by using techniques such as IP spoofing or fragmentation. Installing Host Based Intrusion Detection Systems (HIDS) is not the most effective layer of security, because HIDS only monitors and detects the activities and events on a single host, and does not prevent or respond to the attacks. HIDS can also be disabled or evaded by the attacker if the host is compromised. Requiring strong authentication for administrators is not the most effective layer of security, because authentication only verifies the identity of the users or processes, and does not protect the data in transit or at rest. Authentication can also be defeated by using techniques such as phishing, keylogging, or credential theft.

Network Behavior Analysis (NBA) tools are the best network defense against unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks in progress. NBA tools are devices or software that monitor and analyze the network traffic and activities, and detect any anomalies or deviations from the normal or expected behavior. NBA tools use various techniques, such as statistical analysis, machine learning, artificial intelligence, or heuristics, to establish a baseline of the network behavior, and to identify any outliers or indicators of compromise. NBA tools can provide several benefits, such as:

• Detecting unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that are not signature-based or rule-based, and that can evade or bypass other network defenses, such as firewalls, IDS, or IPS.
• Detecting advanced persistent threats (APTs) that are low and slow, and that can remain undetected for a long time, by correlating and aggregating the network events and data over time and across different sources.
• Detecting insider threats or compromised hosts that are authorized and trusted, but that exhibit malicious or suspicious behavior, by profiling and classifying the network entities and their interactions.
• Providing early warning and alerting of the potential or ongoing attacks, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents, by providing rich and contextual information about the network behavior and the attack vectors.

The other options are not the best network defense against unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks in progress, but rather network defenses that have other limitations or drawbacks. Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS) are devices or software that monitor and block the network traffic and activities that match the predefined signatures or rules of known attacks. IPS can provide a proactive and preventive layer of security, but they cannot detect or stop unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that do not match any signatures or rules, or that can evade or disable the IPS. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are devices or software that monitor and alert the network traffic and activities that match the predefined signatures or rules of known attacks. IDS can provide a reactive and detective layer of security, but they cannot detect or alert unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that do not match any signatures or rules, or that can evade or disable the IDS. Stateful firewalls are devices or software that filter and control the network traffic and activities based on the state and context of the network sessions, such as the source and destination IP addresses, port numbers, protocol types, and sequence numbers. Stateful firewalls can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security, but they cannot filter or control unknown types of attacks or stealth attacks that use valid or spoofed network sessions, or that can exploit or bypass the firewall rules.

Link Control Protocol (LCP) is used by the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) to determine packet formats. PPP is a data link layer protocol that provides a standard method for transporting network layer packets over point-to-point links, such as serial lines, modems, or dial-up connections. PPP supports various network layer protocols, such as IP, IPX, or AppleTalk, and it can encapsulate them in a common frame format. PPP also provides features such as authentication, compression, error detection, and multilink aggregation. LCP is a subprotocol of PPP that is responsible for establishing, configuring, maintaining, and terminating the point-to-point connection. LCP negotiates and agrees on various options and parameters for the PPP link, such as the maximum transmission unit (MTU), the authentication method, the compression method, the error detection method, and the packet format. LCP uses a series of messages, such as configure-request, configure-ack, configure-nak, configure-reject, terminate-request, terminate-ack, code-reject, protocol-reject, echo-request, echo-reply, and discard-request, to communicate and exchange information between the PPP peers.

The other options are not used by PPP to determine packet formats, but rather for other purposes. Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) is a tunneling protocol that allows the creation of virtual private networks (VPNs) over public networks, such as the Internet. L2TP encapsulates PPP frames in IP datagrams and sends them across the tunnel between two L2TP endpoints. L2TP does not determine the packet format of PPP, but rather uses it as a payload. Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is an authentication protocol that is used by PPP to verify the identity of the remote peer before allowing access to the network. CHAP uses a challenge-response mechanism that involves a random number (nonce) and a hash function to prevent replay attacks. CHAP does not determine the packet format of PPP, but rather uses it as a transport. Packet Transfer Protocol (PTP) is not a valid option, as there is no such protocol with this name. There is a Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE), which is a protocol that encapsulates PPP frames in Ethernet frames and allows the use of PPP over Ethernet networks. PPPoE does not determine the packet format of PPP, but rather uses it as a payload.

Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall is the most suited to quickly implement a control for an input validation and exception handling vulnerability on a critical web-based system. An input validation and exception handling vulnerability is a type of vulnerability that occurs when a web-based system does not properly check, filter, or sanitize the input data that is received from the users or other sources, or does not properly handle the errors or exceptions that are generated by the system. An input validation and exception handling vulnerability can lead to various attacks, such as:

• Injection attacks, such as SQL injection, command injection, or cross-site scripting (XSS), where the attacker inserts malicious code or commands into the input data that are executed by the system or the browser, resulting in data theft, data manipulation, or remote code execution.
• Buffer overflow attacks, where the attacker sends more input data than the system can handle, causing the system to overwrite the adjacent memory locations, resulting in data corruption, system crash, or arbitrary code execution.
• Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, where the attacker sends malformed or invalid input data that cause the system to generate excessive errors or exceptions, resulting in system overload, resource exhaustion, or system failure.

An application layer firewall is a device or software that operates at the application layer of the OSI model and inspects the application layer payload or the content of the data packets. An application layer firewall can provide various functions, such as:

• Filtering the data packets based on the application layer protocols, such as HTTP, FTP, or SMTP, and the application layer attributes, such as URLs, cookies, or headers.
• Blocking or allowing the data packets based on the predefined rules or policies that specify the criteria for the application layer protocols and attributes.
• Logging and auditing the data packets for the application layer protocols and attributes.
• Modifying or transforming the data packets for the application layer protocols and attributes.

Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall is the most suited to quickly implement a control for an input validation and exception handling vulnerability on a critical web-based system, because it can prevent or reduce the impact of the attacks by filtering or blocking the malicious or invalid input data that exploit the vulnerability. For example, a new rule can be added to the application layer firewall to:

• Reject or drop the data packets that contain SQL statements, shell commands, or script tags in the input data, which can prevent or reduce the injection attacks.
• Reject or drop the data packets that exceed a certain size or length in the input data, which can prevent or reduce the buffer overflow attacks.
• Reject or drop the data packets that contain malformed or invalid syntax or characters in the input data, which can prevent or reduce the DoS attacks.

Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall can be done quickly and easily, without requiring any changes or patches to the web-based system, which can be time-consuming and risky, especially for a critical system. Adding a new rule to the application layer firewall can also be done remotely and centrally, without requiring any physical access or installation on the web-based system, which can be inconvenient and costly, especially for a distributed system.

The other options are not the most suited to quickly implement a control for an input validation and exception handling vulnerability on a critical web-based system, but rather options that have other limitations or drawbacks. Blocking access to the service is not the most suited option, because it can cause disruption and unavailability of the service, which can affect the business operations and customer satisfaction, especially for a critical system. Blocking access to the service can also be a temporary and incomplete solution, as it does not address the root cause of the vulnerability or prevent the attacks from occurring again. Installing an Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is not the most suited option, because IDS only monitors and detects the attacks, and does not prevent or respond to them. IDS can also generate false positives or false negatives, which can affect the accuracy and reliability of the detection. IDS can also be overwhelmed or evaded by the attacks, which can affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the detection. Patching the application source code is not the most suited option, because it can take a long time and require a lot of resources and testing to identify, fix, and deploy the patch, especially for a complex and critical system. Patching the application source code can also introduce new errors or vulnerabilities, which can affect the functionality and security of the system. Patching the application source code can also be difficult or impossible, if the system is proprietary or legacy, which can affect the feasibility and compatibility of the patch.

The transport layer of the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) stack is responsible for negotiating and establishing a connection with another node. The TCP/IP stack is a simplified version of the OSI model, and it consists of four layers: application, transport, internet, and link. The transport layer is the third layer of the TCP/IP stack, and it is responsible for providing reliable and efficient end-to-end data transfer between two nodes on a network. The transport layer uses protocols, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), to segment, sequence, acknowledge, and reassemble the data packets, and to handle error detection and correction, flow control, and congestion control. The transport layer also provides connection-oriented or connectionless services, depending on the protocol used.

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means that it establishes a logical connection between two nodes before exchanging data, and it maintains the connection until the data transfer is complete. TCP uses a three-way handshake to negotiate and establish a connection with another node. The three-way handshake works as follows:

• The client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the server, indicating its initial sequence number and requesting a connection.
• The server responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge) packet, indicating its initial sequence number and acknowledging the client’s request.
• The client responds with an ACK (acknowledge) packet, acknowledging the server’s response and completing the connection.

UDP is a connectionless protocol, which means that it does not establish or maintain a connection between two nodes, but rather sends data packets independently and without any guarantee of delivery, order, or integrity. UDP does not use a handshake or any other mechanism to negotiate and establish a connection with another node, but rather relies on the application layer to handle any connection-related issues.

WEP uses a small range Initialization Vector (IV) is the factor that contributes to the weakness of Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol. WEP is a security protocol that provides encryption and authentication for wireless networks, such as Wi-Fi. WEP uses the RC4 stream cipher to encrypt the data packets, and the CRC-32 checksum to verify the data integrity. WEP also uses a shared secret key, which is concatenated with a 24-bit Initialization Vector (IV), to generate the keystream for the RC4 encryption. WEP has several weaknesses and vulnerabilities, such as:

• WEP uses a small range Initialization Vector (IV), which results in 16,777,216 (2^24) possible values. This might seem large, but it is not enough for a high-volume wireless network, where the same IV can be reused frequently, creating keystream reuse and collisions. An attacker can capture and analyze the encrypted data packets that use the same IV, and recover the keystream and the secret key, using techniques such as the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir (FMS) attack, or the KoreK attack.
• WEP uses a weak integrity check, which is the CRC-32 checksum. The CRC-32 checksum is a linear function that can be easily computed and manipulated by anyone who knows the keystream. An attacker can modify the encrypted data packets and the checksum, without being detected, using techniques such as the bit-flipping attack, or the chop-chop attack.
• WEP uses a static and shared secret key, which is manually configured and distributed among all the wireless devices that use the same network. The secret key is not changed or refreshed automatically, unless the administrator does it manually. This means that the secret key can be exposed or compromised over time, and that all the wireless devices can be affected by a single key breach. An attacker can also exploit the weak authentication mechanism of WEP, which is based on the secret key, and gain unauthorized access to the network, using techniques such as the authentication spoofing attack, or the shared key authentication attack.

WEP has been deprecated and replaced by more secure protocols, such as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) or Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2), which use stronger encryption and authentication methods, such as the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), or the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).

The other options are not factors that contribute to the weakness of WEP, but rather factors that are irrelevant or incorrect. WEP does not use Message Digest 5 (MD5), which is a hash function that produces a 128-bit output from a variable-length input. WEP does not use Diffie-Hellman, which is a method for generating a shared secret key between two parties. WEP does use an Initialization Vector (IV), which is a 24-bit value that is concatenated with the secret key.

 The purpose of an Internet Protocol (IP) spoofing attack is to convince a system that it is communicating with a known entity. IP spoofing is a technique that involves creating and sending IP packets with a forged source IP address, which is usually the IP address of a trusted or authorized host. IP spoofing can be used for various malicious purposes, such as:

• Bypassing IP-based access control lists (ACLs) or firewalls that filter traffic based on the source IP address.
• Launching denial-of-service (DoS) or distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks by flooding a target system with spoofed packets, or by reflecting or amplifying the traffic from intermediate systems.
• Hijacking or intercepting a TCP session by predicting or guessing the sequence numbers and sending spoofed packets to the legitimate parties.
• Gaining unauthorized access to a system or network by impersonating a trusted or authorized host and exploiting its privileges or credentials.

The purpose of IP spoofing is to convince a system that it is communicating with a known entity, because it allows the attacker to evade detection, avoid responsibility, and exploit trust relationships.

The other options are not the main purposes of IP spoofing, but rather the possible consequences or methods of IP spoofing. To send excessive amounts of data to a process, making it unpredictable is a possible consequence of IP spoofing, as it can cause a DoS or DDoS attack. To intercept network traffic without authorization is a possible method of IP spoofing, as it can be used to hijack or intercept a TCP session. To disguise the destination address from a target’s IP filtering devices is not a valid option, as IP spoofing involves forging the source address, not the destination address.

Data at rest on a Storage Area Network (SAN) is located at the physical layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model is a conceptual framework that describes how data is transmitted and processed across different layers of a network. The OSI model consists of seven layers: application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, and physical. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model, and it is responsible for the transmission and reception of raw bits over a physical medium, such as cables, wires, or optical fibers. The physical layer defines the physical characteristics of the medium, such as voltage, frequency, modulation, connectors, etc. The physical layer also deals with the physical topology of the network, such as bus, ring, star, mesh, etc.

A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated and block-level data storage. A SAN consists of storage devices, such as disks, tapes, or arrays, that are connected to servers or clients via a network infrastructure, such as switches, routers, or hubs. A SAN allows multiple servers or clients to share the same storage devices, and it provides high performance, availability, scalability, and security for data storage. Data at rest on a SAN is located at the physical layer of the OSI model, because it is stored as raw bits on the physical medium of the storage devices, and it is accessed by the servers or clients through the physical medium of the network infrastructure.

 Packet filtering operates at the network layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. The OSI model is a conceptual framework that describes how data is transmitted and processed across different layers of a network. The OSI model consists of seven layers: application, presentation, session, transport, network, data link, and physical. The network layer is the third layer from the bottom of the OSI model, and it is responsible for routing and forwarding data packets between different networks or subnets. The network layer uses logical addresses, such as IP addresses, to identify the source and destination of the data packets, and it uses protocols, such as IP, ICMP, or ARP, to perform the routing and forwarding functions.

Packet filtering is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the incoming and outgoing data packets and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them. Packet filtering can be performed by devices, such as routers, firewalls, or proxies, that operate at the network layer of the OSI model. Packet filtering typically examines the network layer header of the data packets, such as the source and destination IP addresses, the protocol type, or the fragmentation flags, and compares them with the predefined rules or policies. Packet filtering can also examine the transport layer header of the data packets, such as the source and destination port numbers, the TCP flags, or the sequence numbers, and compare them with the rules or policies. Packet filtering can provide a basic level of security and performance for a network or a host, but it also has some limitations, such as the inability to inspect the payload or the content of the data packets, the vulnerability to spoofing or fragmentation attacks, or the complexity and maintenance of the rules or policies.

The other options are not techniques that operate at the network layer of the OSI model, but rather at other layers. Port services filtering is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the transport layer header of the data packets and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them based on the port numbers or the services. Port services filtering operates at the transport layer of the OSI model, which is the fourth layer from the bottom. Content filtering is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the application layer payload or the content of the data packets and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them based on the keywords, URLs, file types, or other criteria. Content filtering operates at the application layer of the OSI model, which is the seventh and the topmost layer. Application access control is a technique that controls the access to a network or a host by inspecting the application layer identity or the credentials of the users or the processes and applying a set of rules or policies to allow or deny them based on the roles, permissions, or other attributes. Application access control operates at the application layer of the OSI model, which is the seventh and the topmost layer.

 An audit is an independent and objective examination of an organization’s activities, systems, processes, or controls to evaluate their adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, and compliance with applicable standards, policies, laws, or regulations. An audit plan is a document that outlines the objectives, scope, methodology, criteria, schedule, and resources of an audit. The most crucial element of a successful audit plan is defining the scope of the audit to be performed, which is the extent and boundaries of the audit, such as the subject matter, the time period, the locations, the departments, the functions, the systems, or the processes to be audited. The scope of the audit determines what will be included or excluded from the audit, and it helps to ensure that the audit objectives are met and the audit resources are used efficiently and effectively. Identifying the security controls to be implemented, working with the system owner on new controls, and acquiring evidence of systems that are not compliant are all important tasks in an audit, but they are not the most crucial for a successful audit plan, as they depend on the scope of the audit to be defined first. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 54. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 69.

 A federated identity standard is Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML). SAML is a standard that enables the exchange of authentication and authorization information between different parties, such as service providers and identity providers, using XML-based messages called assertions. SAML can facilitate the single sign-on (SSO) process, which allows a user to access multiple services or applications with a single login session, without having to provide their credentials multiple times. SAML can also support the federated identity management, which allows a user to use their identity or credentials from one domain or organization to access the services or applications from another domain or organization, without having to create or maintain separate accounts. 802.11i, Kerberos, and LDAP are not federated identity standards, as they are related to the wireless network security, the network authentication protocol, or the directory service protocol, not the exchange of authentication and authorization information between different parties. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 692. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, Identity and Access Management, page 708.

 The action that an organization that shares card holder information with a service provider must do when dealing with compliance with the Payment Card Industry-Data Security Standard (PCI-DSS) is to validate the service provider’s PCI-DSS compliance status on a regular basis. PCI-DSS is a set of security standards that applies to any organization that stores, processes, or transmits card holder data, such as credit or debit card information. PCI-DSS aims to protect the card holder data from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, or theft, and to ensure the security and integrity of the payment transactions. If an organization shares card holder data with a service provider, such as a payment processor, a hosting provider, or a cloud provider, the organization is still responsible for the security and compliance of the card holder data, and must ensure that the service provider also meets the PCI-DSS requirements. The organization must validate the service provider’s PCI-DSS compliance status on a regular basis, by obtaining and reviewing the service provider’s PCI-DSS assessment reports, such as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire (SAQ), the Report on Compliance (ROC), or the Attestation of Compliance (AOC). Performing a service provider PCI-DSS assessment on a yearly basis, validating that the service provider’s security policies are in alignment with those of the organization, and ensuring that the service provider updates and tests its Disaster Recovery Plan (DRP) on a yearly basis are not the actions that an organization that shares card holder information with a service provider must do when dealing with compliance with PCI-DSS, as they are not sufficient or relevant to verify the service provider’s PCI-DSS compliance status or to protect the card holder data. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 49. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, Security and Risk Management, page 64.

When implementing a secure wireless network, the option that supports authentication and authorization for individual client endpoints is Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2) Enterprise. WPA2 is a security protocol that provides encryption and authentication for wireless networks, based on the IEEE 802.11i standard. WPA2 has two modes: Personal and Enterprise. WPA2 Personal uses a Pre-Shared Key (PSK) that is shared among all the devices on the network, and does not require a separate authentication server. WPA2 Enterprise uses an Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) that authenticates each device individually, using a username and password or a certificate, and requires a Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) server or another authentication server. WPA2 Enterprise provides more security and granularity than WPA2 Personal, as it can support different levels of access and permissions for different users or groups, and can prevent unauthorized or compromised devices from joining the network. Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) Pre-Shared Key (PSK), and Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol (CCMP) are not the options that support authentication and authorization for individual client endpoints, as they are related to the encryption or integrity of the wireless data, not the identity or access of the wireless devices. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 506. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, Communication and Network Security, page 522.

Secure authentication with logging provides access accountability, which means that the actions of users can be traced and audited. Logging can help identify unauthorized or malicious activities, enforce policies, and support investigations12

Configuration control procedures are critical for establishing an initial baseline for software components in the operation and maintenance of applications. Configuration control procedures are the processes and activities that ensure the integrity, consistency, and traceability of the software components throughout the SDLC. Configuration control procedures include identifying, documenting, storing, reviewing, approving, and updating the software components, as well as managing the changes and versions of the components. By establishing an initial baseline, the organization can have a reference point for measuring and evaluating the performance, quality, and security of the software components, and for applying and tracking the changes and updates to the components. The other options are not as critical as configuration control procedures, as they either do not establish an initial baseline (A and C), or do not apply to all software components (D). References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 468; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, page 568.

The use of private and public encryption keys is fundamental in the implementation of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). SSL is a protocol that provides secure communication over the Internet by using public key cryptography and digital certificates. SSL works as follows:

• The client initiates a connection to the server and requests its digital certificate, which contains its public key and identity information.
• The server sends its digital certificate to the client, and optionally requests the client’s digital certificate as well.
• The client verifies the server’s digital certificate with a trusted third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), and optionally sends its own digital certificate to the server.
• The server verifies the client’s digital certificate with a trusted third party, if applicable.
• The client and the server use the Diffie-Hellman algorithm to generate a shared secret key, which is used to encrypt and decrypt the data exchanged between them.
• The client and the server use the shared secret key and a symmetric encryption algorithm, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), to establish a secure session and communicate confidentially and reliably.

The use of private and public encryption keys is fundamental in the implementation of SSL because it enables the authentication of the parties, the establishment of the shared secret key, and the protection of the data from eavesdropping, tampering, and replay attacks.

The other options are not protocols or algorithms that use private and public encryption keys in their implementation. Diffie-Hellman algorithm is a method for generating a shared secret key between two parties, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather public and private parameters. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric encryption algorithm that uses the same key for encryption and decryption, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather a single secret key. Message Digest 5 (MD5) is a hash function that produces a fixed-length output from a variable-length input, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather a one-way mathematical function.

Compressing the data before encryption is a technique that can be used to make an encryption scheme more resistant to a known plaintext attack. A known plaintext attack is a type of cryptanalysis where the attacker has access to some pairs of plaintext and ciphertext encrypted with the same key, and tries to recover the key or decrypt other ciphertexts. A known plaintext attack can exploit the statistical properties or patterns of the plaintext or the ciphertext to reduce the search space or guess the key. Compressing the data before encryption can reduce the redundancy and increase the entropy of the plaintext, making it harder for the attacker to find any correlations or similarities between the plaintext and the ciphertext. Compressing the data before encryption can also reduce the size of the plaintext, making it more difficult for the attacker to obtain enough plaintext-ciphertext pairs for a successful attack.

The other options are not techniques that can be used to make an encryption scheme more resistant to a known plaintext attack, but rather techniques that can introduce other security issues or inefficiencies. Hashing the data before encryption is not a useful technique, as hashing is a one-way function that cannot be reversed, and the encrypted hash cannot be decrypted to recover the original data. Hashing the data after encryption is also not a useful technique, as hashing does not add any security to the encryption, and the hash can be easily computed by anyone who has access to the ciphertext. Compressing the data after encryption is not a recommended technique, as compression algorithms usually work better on uncompressed data, and compressing the ciphertext can introduce errors or vulnerabilities that can compromise the encryption.

 Code signing is the mobile code security model that relies only on trust. Mobile code is a type of software that can be transferred from one system to another and executed without installation or compilation. Mobile code can be used for various purposes, such as web applications, applets, scripts, macros, etc. Mobile code can also pose various security risks, such as malicious code, unauthorized access, data leakage, etc. Mobile code security models are the techniques that are used to protect the systems and users from the threats of mobile code. Code signing is a mobile code security model that relies only on trust, which means that the security of the mobile code depends on the reputation and credibility of the code provider. Code signing works as follows:

• The code provider has a pair of public and private keys, and obtains a digital certificate from a trusted third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), that binds the public key to the identity of the code provider.
• The code provider signs the mobile code with its private key and attaches the digital certificate to the mobile code.
• The code consumer receives the mobile code and verifies the signature and the certificate with the public key of the code provider and the CA, respectively.
• The code consumer decides whether to trust and execute the mobile code based on the identity and reputation of the code provider.

Code signing relies only on trust because it does not enforce any security restrictions or controls on the mobile code, but rather leaves the decision to the code consumer. Code signing also does not guarantee the quality or functionality of the mobile code, but rather the authenticity and integrity of the code provider. Code signing can be effective if the code consumer knows and trusts the code provider, and if the code provider follows the security standards and best practices. However, code signing can also be ineffective if the code consumer is unaware or careless of the code provider, or if the code provider is compromised or malicious.

The other options are not mobile code security models that rely only on trust, but rather on other techniques that limit or isolate the mobile code. Class authentication is a mobile code security model that verifies the permissions and capabilities of the mobile code based on its class or type, and allows or denies the execution of the mobile code accordingly. Sandboxing is a mobile code security model that executes the mobile code in a separate and restricted environment, and prevents the mobile code from accessing or affecting the system resources or data. Type safety is a mobile code security model that checks the validity and consistency of the mobile code, and prevents the mobile code from performing illegal or unsafe operations.

The second phase of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) key/certificate life-cycle management is the initialization phase. PKI is a system that uses public key cryptography and digital certificates to provide authentication, confidentiality, integrity, and non-repudiation for electronic transactions. PKI key/certificate life-cycle management is the process of managing the creation, distribution, usage, storage, revocation, and expiration of keys and certificates in a PKI system. The key/certificate life-cycle management consists of six phases: pre-certification, initialization, certification, operational, suspension, and termination. The initialization phase is the second phase, where the key pair and the certificate request are generated by the end entity or the registration authority (RA). The initialization phase involves the following steps:

• The end entity or the RA generates a key pair, consisting of a public key and a private key, using a secure and random method.
• The end entity or the RA creates a certificate request, which contains the public key and other identity information of the end entity, such as the name, email, organization, etc.
• The end entity or the RA submits the certificate request to the certification authority (CA), which is the trusted entity that issues and signs the certificates in the PKI system.
• The end entity or the RA securely stores the private key and protects it from unauthorized access, loss, or compromise.

The other options are not the second phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather other phases. The implementation phase is not a phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather a phase of PKI system deployment, where the PKI components and policies are installed and configured. The cancellation phase is not a phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather a possible outcome of the termination phase, where the key pair and the certificate are permanently revoked and deleted. The issued phase is not a phase of PKI key/certificate life-cycle management, but rather a possible outcome of the certification phase, where the CA verifies and approves the certificate request and issues the certificate to the end entity or the RA.

The component of the Security Content Automation Protocol (SCAP) specification that contains the data required to estimate the severity of vulnerabilities identified by automated vulnerability assessments is the Common Vulnerability Scoring System (CVSS). CVSS is a framework that provides a standardized and objective way to measure and communicate the characteristics and impacts of vulnerabilities. CVSS consists of three metric groups: base, temporal, and environmental. The base metric group captures the intrinsic and fundamental properties of a vulnerability that are constant over time and across user environments. The temporal metric group captures the characteristics of a vulnerability that change over time, such as the availability and effectiveness of exploits, patches, and workarounds. The environmental metric group captures the characteristics of a vulnerability that are relevant and unique to a user’s environment, such as the configuration and importance of the affected system. Each metric group has a set of metrics that are assigned values based on the vulnerability’s attributes. The values are then combined using a formula to produce a numerical score that ranges from 0 to 10, where 0 means no impact and 10 means critical impact. The score can also be translated into a qualitative rating that ranges from none to low, medium, high, and critical. CVSS provides a consistent and comprehensive way to estimate the severity of vulnerabilities and prioritize their remediation.

The other options are not components of the SCAP specification that contain the data required to estimate the severity of vulnerabilities identified by automated vulnerability assessments, but rather components that serve other purposes. Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) is a component that provides a standardized and unique identifier and description for each publicly known vulnerability. CVE facilitates the sharing and comparison of vulnerability information across different sources and tools. Asset Reporting Format (ARF) is a component that provides a standardized and extensible format for expressing the information about the assets and their characteristics, such as configuration, vulnerabilities, and compliance. ARF enables the aggregation and correlation of asset information from different sources and tools. Open Vulnerability and Assessment Language (OVAL) is a component that provides a standardized and expressive language for defining and testing the state of a system for the presence of vulnerabilities, configuration issues, patches, and other aspects. OVAL enables the automation and interoperability of vulnerability assessment and management.

The person in the organization who is accountable for the classification of data information assets is the data owner. The data owner is the person or entity that has the authority and responsibility for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. The data owner is also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. The data owner should be able to determine the impact of the data on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the data on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data. The data owner should also ensure that the data is properly labeled, stored, accessed, shared, and destroyed according to the data classification policy and procedures.

The other options are not the persons in the organization who are accountable for the classification of data information assets, but rather persons who have other roles or functions related to data management. The data architect is the person or entity that designs and models the structure, format, and relationships of the data, as well as the data standards, specifications, and lifecycle. The data architect supports the data owner by providing technical guidance and expertise on the data architecture and quality. The Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) is the person or entity that oversees the security strategy, policies, and programs of the organization, as well as the security performance and incidents. The CISO supports the data owner by providing security leadership and governance, as well as ensuring the compliance and alignment of the data security with the organizational objectives and regulations. The Chief Information Officer (CIO) is the person or entity that manages the information technology (IT) resources and services of the organization, as well as the IT strategy and innovation. The CIO supports the data owner by providing IT management and direction, as well as ensuring the availability, reliability, and scalability of the IT infrastructure and applications.

The security service that is served by the process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key is identification. Identification is the process of verifying the identity of a person or entity that claims to be who or what it is. Identification can be achieved by using public key cryptography and digital signatures, which are based on the process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key. This process works as follows:

• The sender has a pair of public and private keys, and the public key is shared with the receiver in advance.
• The sender encrypts the plaintext message with its private key, which produces a ciphertext that is also a digital signature of the message.
• The sender sends the ciphertext to the receiver, along with the plaintext message or a hash of the message.
• The receiver decrypts the ciphertext with the sender’s public key, which produces the same plaintext message or hash of the message.
• The receiver compares the decrypted message or hash with the original message or hash, and verifies the identity of the sender if they match.

The process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key serves identification because it ensures that only the sender can produce a valid ciphertext that can be decrypted by the receiver, and that the receiver can verify the sender’s identity by using the sender’s public key. This process also provides non-repudiation, which means that the sender cannot deny sending the message or the receiver cannot deny receiving the message, as the ciphertext serves as a proof of origin and delivery.

The other options are not the security services that are served by the process of encrypting plaintext with the sender’s private key and decrypting ciphertext with the sender’s public key. Confidentiality is the process of ensuring that the message is only readable by the intended parties, and it is achieved by encrypting plaintext with the receiver’s public key and decrypting ciphertext with the receiver’s private key. Integrity is the process of ensuring that the message is not modified or corrupted during transmission, and it is achieved by using hash functions and message authentication codes. Availability is the process of ensuring that the message is accessible and usable by the authorized parties, and it is achieved by using redundancy, backup, and recovery mechanisms.

Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) is the best solution for the manufacturing organization that wants to establish a Federated Identity Management (FIM) system with its 20 different supplier companies. FIM is a process that allows the sharing and recognition of identities across different organizations that have a trust relationship. FIM enables the users of one organization to access the resources or services of another organization without having to create or maintain multiple accounts or credentials. FIM can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the user experience and convenience by reducing the need for multiple logins and passwords
• Enhancing the security and privacy by minimizing the exposure and duplication of sensitive information
• Increasing the efficiency and productivity by streamlining the authentication and authorization processes
• Reducing the cost and complexity by simplifying the identity management and administration

SAML is a standard protocol that supports FIM by allowing the exchange of authentication and authorization information between different parties. SAML uses XML-based messages, called assertions, to convey the identity, attributes, and entitlements of a user to a service provider. SAML defines three roles for the parties involved in FIM:

• Identity provider (IdP): the party that authenticates the user and issues the SAML assertion
• Service provider (SP): the party that provides the resource or service that the user wants to access
• User or principal: the party that requests access to the resource or service

SAML works as follows:

• The user requests access to a resource or service from the SP
• The SP redirects the user to the IdP for authentication
• The IdP authenticates the user and generates a SAML assertion that contains the user’s identity, attributes, and entitlements
• The IdP sends the SAML assertion to the SP
• The SP validates the SAML assertion and grants or denies access to the user based on the information in the assertion

SAML is the best solution for the manufacturing organization that wants to establish a FIM system with its 20 different supplier companies, because it can enable the seamless and secure access to the resources or services across the different organizations, without requiring the users to create or maintain multiple accounts or credentials. SAML can also provide interoperability and compatibility between different platforms and technologies, as it is based on a standard and open protocol.

The other options are not the best solutions for the manufacturing organization that wants to establish a FIM system with its 20 different supplier companies, but rather solutions that have other limitations or drawbacks. Trusted third-party certification is a process that involves a third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), that issues and verifies digital certificates that contain the public key and identity information of a user or an entity. Trusted third-party certification can provide authentication and encryption for the communication between different parties, but it does not provide authorization or entitlement information for the access to the resources or services. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a protocol that allows the access and management of directory services, such as Active Directory, that store the identity and attribute information of users and entities. LDAP can provide a centralized and standardized way to store and retrieve identity and attribute information, but it does not provide a mechanism to exchange or federate the information across different organizations. Cross-certification is a process that involves two or more CAs that establish a trust relationship and recognize each other’s certificates. Cross-certification can extend the trust and validity of the certificates across different domains or organizations, but it does not provide a mechanism to exchange or federate the identity, attribute, or entitlement information.

Applying the principle of least privilege is the best approach for controlling access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance. The principle of least privilege is a security concept that states that every user or process should have the minimum amount of access rights and permissions that are necessary to perform their tasks or functions, and nothing more. The principle of least privilege can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the security and confidentiality of the information by limiting the access and exposure of the sensitive data to the authorized users and purposes
• Reducing the risk and impact of unauthorized access or disclosure of the information by minimizing the attack surface and the potential damage
• Increasing the accountability and auditability of the information by tracking and logging the access and usage of the sensitive data
• Enhancing the performance and efficiency of the system by reducing the complexity and overhead of the access control mechanisms

Applying the principle of least privilege is the best approach for controlling access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance, because it can ensure that the employees can only access the information that is relevant and necessary for their tasks or functions, and that they cannot access or manipulate the information that is beyond their scope or authority. For example, if the highly sensitive information is related to a specific project or department, then only the employees who are involved in that project or department should have access to that information, and not the employees who have the same level of security clearance but are not involved in that project or department.

The other options are not the best approaches for controlling access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance, but rather approaches that have other purposes or effects. Audit logs are records that capture and store the information about the events and activities that occur within a system or a network, such as the access and usage of the sensitive data. Audit logs can provide a reactive and detective layer of security by enabling the monitoring and analysis of the system or network behavior, and facilitating the investigation and response of the incidents. However, audit logs cannot prevent or reduce the access or disclosure of the sensitive information, but rather provide evidence or clues after the fact. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) is a method that enforces the access rights and permissions of the users based on their roles or functions within the organization, rather than their identities or attributes. RBAC can provide a granular and dynamic layer of security by defining and assigning the roles and permissions according to the organizational structure and policies. However, RBAC cannot control the access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance and the same role or function within the organization, but rather rely on other criteria or mechanisms. Two-factor authentication is a technique that verifies the identity of the users by requiring them to provide two pieces of evidence or factors, such as something they know (e.g., password, PIN), something they have (e.g., token, smart card), or something they are (e.g., fingerprint, face). Two-factor authentication can provide a strong and preventive layer of security by preventing unauthorized access to the system or network by the users who do not have both factors. However, two-factor authentication cannot control the access to highly sensitive information when employees have the same level of security clearance and the same two factors, but rather rely on other criteria or mechanisms.

Derived credential is the best description of an access control method utilizing cryptographic keys derived from a smart card private key that is embedded within mobile devices. A smart card is a device that contains a microchip that stores a private key and a digital certificate that are used for authentication and encryption. A smart card is typically inserted into a reader that is attached to a computer or a terminal, and the user enters a personal identification number (PIN) to unlock the smart card and access the private key and the certificate. A smart card can provide a high level of security and convenience for the user, as it implements a two-factor authentication method that combines something the user has (the smart card) and something the user knows (the PIN).

However, a smart card may not be compatible or convenient for mobile devices, such as smartphones or tablets, that do not have a smart card reader or a USB port. To address this issue, a derived credential is a solution that allows the user to use a mobile device as an alternative to a smart card for authentication and encryption. A derived credential is a cryptographic key and a certificate that are derived from the smart card private key and certificate, and that are stored on the mobile device. A derived credential works as follows:

• The user inserts the smart card into a reader that is connected to a computer or a terminal, and enters the PIN to unlock the smart card
• The user connects the mobile device to the computer or the terminal via a cable, Bluetooth, or Wi-Fi
• The user initiates a request to generate a derived credential on the mobile device
• The computer or the terminal verifies the smart card certificate with a trusted CA, and generates a derived credential that contains a cryptographic key and a certificate that are derived from the smart card private key and certificate
• The computer or the terminal transfers the derived credential to the mobile device, and stores it in a secure element or a trusted platform module on the device
• The user disconnects the mobile device from the computer or the terminal, and removes the smart card from the reader
• The user can use the derived credential on the mobile device to authenticate and encrypt the communication with other parties, without requiring the smart card or the PIN

A derived credential can provide a secure and convenient way to use a mobile device as an alternative to a smart card for authentication and encryption, as it implements a two-factor authentication method that combines something the user has (the mobile device) and something the user is (the biometric feature). A derived credential can also comply with the standards and policies for the use of smart cards, such as the Personal Identity Verification (PIV) or the Common Access Card (CAC) programs.

The other options are not the best descriptions of an access control method utilizing cryptographic keys derived from a smart card private key that is embedded within mobile devices, but rather descriptions of other methods or concepts. Temporary security credential is a method that involves issuing a short-lived credential, such as a token or a password, that can be used for a limited time or a specific purpose. Temporary security credential can provide a flexible and dynamic way to grant access to the users or entities, but it does not involve deriving a cryptographic key from a smart card private key. Mobile device credentialing service is a concept that involves providing a service that can issue, manage, or revoke credentials for mobile devices, such as certificates, tokens, or passwords. Mobile device credentialing service can provide a centralized and standardized way to control the access of mobile devices, but it does not involve deriving a cryptographic key from a smart card private key. Digest authentication is a method that involves using a hash function, such as MD5, to generate a digest or a fingerprint of the user’s credentials, such as the username and password, and sending it to the server for verification. Digest authentication can provide a more secure way to authenticate the user than the basic authentication, which sends the credentials in plain text, but it does not involve deriving a cryptographic key from a smart card private key.

Limiting access to predefined queries is the control that would prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they only require access rights that allow them to view the average salary of groups of employees. A query is a request for information from a database, which can be expressed in a structured query language (SQL) or a graphical user interface (GUI). A query can specify the criteria, conditions, and operations for selecting, filtering, sorting, grouping, and aggregating the data from the database. A predefined query is a query that has been created and stored in advance by the database administrator or the data owner, and that can be executed by the authorized users without any modification. A predefined query can provide several benefits, such as:

• Improving the performance and efficiency of the database by reducing the processing time and resources required for executing the queries
• Enhancing the security and confidentiality of the database by restricting the access and exposure of the sensitive data to the authorized users and purposes
• Increasing the accuracy and reliability of the database by preventing the errors or inconsistencies that might occur due to the user input or modification of the queries
• Reducing the cost and complexity of the database by simplifying the query design and management

Limiting access to predefined queries is the control that would prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they only require access rights that allow them to view the average salary of groups of employees, because it can ensure that the users can only access the data that is relevant and necessary for their tasks, and that they cannot access or manipulate the data that is beyond their scope or authority. For example, a predefined query can be created and stored that calculates and displays the average salary of groups of employees based on certain criteria, such as department, position, or experience. The users who need to view this information can execute this predefined query, but they cannot modify it or create their own queries that might reveal the individual employee’s salary or other sensitive data.

The other options are not the controls that would prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they only require access rights that allow them to view the average salary of groups of employees, but rather controls that have other purposes or effects. Segregating the database into a small number of partitions each with a separate security level is a control that would improve the performance and security of the database by dividing it into smaller and manageable segments that can be accessed and processed independently and concurrently. However, this control would not prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they have access to the partition that contains the salary data, and if they can create or modify their own queries. Implementing Role Based Access Control (RBAC) is a control that would enforce the access rights and permissions of the users based on their roles or functions within the organization, rather than their identities or attributes. However, this control would not prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if their roles or functions require them to access the salary data, and if they can create or modify their own queries. Reducing the number of people who have access to the system for statistical purposes is a control that would reduce the risk and impact of unauthorized access or disclosure of the sensitive data by minimizing the exposure and distribution of the data. However, this control would not prevent the users from obtaining an individual employee’s salary, if they are among the people who have access to the system, and if they can create or modify their own queries.

 The confidentiality, integrity, availability triad, or CIA triad, is a tool used to assist in understanding how to protect the organization’s data. The CIA triad is a model that defines the three fundamental and interrelated security objectives of information security, which are:

• Confidentiality: The objective of ensuring that the data is accessible and disclosed only to the authorized parties, and not to any unauthorized or unintended parties.
• Integrity: The objective of ensuring that the data is accurate, complete, and consistent, and that it is not modified, corrupted, or destroyed by any unauthorized or unintended parties.
• Availability: The objective of ensuring that the data is accessible and usable by the authorized parties, whenever and wherever they need it, and that it is not disrupted, degraded, or denied by any unauthorized or unintended parties. The CIA triad is a tool used to assist in understanding how to protect the organization’s data, as it provides a framework and a guideline for identifying, analyzing, and prioritizing the security risks and controls for the data, based on the security requirements and expectations of the organization and the stakeholders . References: [CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, page 16]; [CISSP Practice Exam – FREE 20 Questions and Answers, Question 14].

Vulnerability remediation is the process that could have prevented the breach of a website that was exploited through an open source component. Vulnerability remediation involves identifying, assessing, and resolving the vulnerabilities or weaknesses that may affect the security or the functionality of the systems or the components. Vulnerability remediation can prevent the breach of a website that was exploited through an open source component, because it can:

• Detect and evaluate the open source component and its dependencies, and determine if they have any known or unknown vulnerabilities or issues that could be exploited by attackers or malicious users.
• Apply and test the patches, fixes, or updates that are available or recommended for the open source component and its dependencies, and ensure that they do not introduce any new vulnerabilities or issues, or affect the performance or the compatibility of the website or the system.
• Monitor and review the open source component and its dependencies, and keep them updated and secure, and report and document any vulnerabilities or issues that are found or resolved.

The other options are not the processes that could have prevented the breach of a website that was exploited through an open source component. Application whitelisting is the process of allowing only the authorized or trusted applications or components to run or execute on the system or the network, and blocking or restricting the unauthorized or untrusted applications or components. Application whitelisting could not have prevented the breach of a website that was exploited through an open source component, because the open source component may have been authorized or trusted by the system or the network, but it may still have some vulnerabilities or issues that could be exploited. Web application firewall (WAF) is the process of protecting the web applications or the websites from the common or the specific web-based attacks or threats, such as SQL injection, cross-site scripting, or denial-of-service, by filtering, monitoring, or blocking the incoming or outgoing web traffic. WAF could not have prevented the breach of a website that was exploited through an open source component, because the open source component may have been exploited by an attack or a threat that is not web-based, or that is not detected or blocked by the WAF. Software inventory is the process of maintaining and managing the records or the information of the software or the components that are installed or used on the system or the network, such as the name, the version, the license, or the source. Software inventory could not have prevented the breach of a website that was exploited through an open source component, because the software inventory may not have the details or the status of the vulnerabilities or the issues of the software or the components, or the patches, fixes, or updates that are available or required for them. References: [CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition], Chapter 4: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 451. [Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition], Chapter 4: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 452.

The CISO did not address all the legal requirements in this situation, because the encryption solution is internal to the cloud provider. Moving the main business application to the cloud involves transferring the data and the processing of the data from the organization’s own premises to the cloud provider’s premises. This may raise several legal and regulatory issues, such as the compliance with the data protection laws, the data sovereignty laws, the data breach notification laws, and the contractual obligations. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is one of the data protection laws that applies to the organizations that process the personal data of the individuals in the European Union (EU), regardless of where the processing takes place. The GDPR requires the organizations to ensure the confidentiality, the integrity, and the availability of the personal data, and to implement appropriate technical and organizational measures to protect the personal data from unauthorized or unlawful access, use, disclosure, alteration, or destruction. One of the technical measures that can be used to protect the personal data is encryption, which is a technique that transforms the data into an unreadable or unintelligible form, using a key and an algorithm, and that prevents unauthorized access, modification, or disclosure of the data. However, the encryption solution that the cloud provider offers is internal to the cloud provider, meaning that the cloud provider has the control and the access to the encryption keys and the encryption algorithms. This may pose a risk to the data confidentiality, as the cloud provider may be able to decrypt the data, or may be compelled to disclose the data to third parties, such as law enforcement agencies or other governments. Therefore, the CISO did not address all the legal requirements in this situation, as the encryption solution is internal to the cloud provider, and does not guarantee the data confidentiality. The organization may need to use its own encryption solution, or to negotiate with the cloud provider to have more control and visibility over the encryption keys and the encryption algorithms. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 120. CISSP Practice Exam – FREE 20 Questions and Answers, Question 19.

When an organization uses a public cloud service provider (CSP) to store sensitive data, it should ensure that the data is protected both during and after the service agreement. One of the best ways to do this is to use a contractual agreement that specifies the CSP’s obligations and responsibilities for wiping the data from the storage environment once the agreement expires and the assets are reused. This way, the organization can hold the CSP accountable for the secure deletion of the data and prevent any unauthorized access or disclosure of the data by the CSP or other customers. Using internal encryption keys, continuous monitoring, or NIST recommendations are good practices, but they do not guarantee that the CSP will wipe the data from the storage environment. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Cloud Computing and Virtualization, page 281; CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Third Edition, Domain 5: Identity and Access Management, Question 5.9, page 216.

Verifying the security camera requires authentication to log into the management console is the best way to ensure the security of the camera. Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user or device that attempts to access a system or resource. Authentication prevents unauthorized access, modification, or misuse of the camera and its data. Authentication can be done using different factors, such as passwords, tokens, biometrics, or certificates. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Identity and Access Management, page 201. Free daily CISSP practice questions, Question 2.

ISIsOC 1 is the most useful Service Organization Control (SOC) report for reviewing the financial reporting risks of a third-party application, because it focuses on the internal controls over financial reporting (ICFR) of the service organization. ISIsOC 1 reports are based on the Statement on Standards for Attestation Engagements (SSAE) No. 18, and can be either Type 1 or Type 2, depending on whether they provide a point-in-time or a period-of-time evaluation of the controls. SOC 2, SOC 3, and SOC for cybersecurity reports are based on the Trust Services Criteria, and cover different aspects of the service organization’s security, availability, confidentiality, processing integrity, and privacy. They are not specifically designed for financial reporting risks. References: CISSP Official Study Guide, 9th Edition, page 1016; CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, 8th Edition, page 1095

Records on a project are any documents or data that provide evidence of the project activities, results, or decisions. Records on a project should be retained until they are no longer useful or required by policy. The retention period of records may vary depending on the type, purpose, and value of the records, as well as the legal, regulatory, or contractual obligations of the organization. Retaining records for the duration of the project, or at the discretion of the record owner, may not be sufficient or consistent with the organization’s policies. Retaining records until five years after the project ends, or for the duration of the organization’s fiscal year, may not be necessary or appropriate for all records. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 45; CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Third Edition, Domain 1: Security and Risk Management, Question 1.17, page 51.

A centralized logging system is the best option for providing non-repudiation of user account actions. Non-repudiation is the ability to prove that a certain action or event occurred and who was responsible for it, without the possibility of denial or dispute. A centralized logging system is a system that collects, stores, and analyzes the log records generated by various sources, such as applications, servers, devices, or users. A centralized logging system can provide non-repudiation by capturing and preserving the evidence of the user account actions, such as the timestamp, the username, the IP address, the action performed, and the outcome. A centralized logging system can also prevent the tampering or deletion of the log records by using encryption, hashing, digital signatures, or write-once media. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Security Operations, page 382. CISSP Practice Exam | Boson, Question 10.

The most cost-efficient way for the office to increase network performance is to upgrade to WiFi 5, which is the latest generation of wireless technology that offers faster speeds, lower latency, and higher capacity than WiFi 4. WiFi 5 operates on both 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands, and supports features such as MU-MIMO, beamforming, and channel bonding, which can improve the throughput and efficiency of the wireless network. Upgrading to WiFi 5 may require replacing the existing APs and devices with compatible ones, but it may not be as expensive or complex as the other options. The other options are either ineffective or impractical for increasing network performance, as they may not address the root cause of the problem, may interfere with the neighboring offices, or may require additional hardware or configuration. References: CISSP - Certified Information Systems Security Professional, Domain 4. Communication and Network Security, 4.1 Implement secure design principles in network architectures, 4.1.3 Secure network components, 4.1.3.1 Wireless access points; CISSP Exam Outline, Domain 4. Communication and Network Security, 4.1 Implement secure design principles in network architectures, 4.1.3 Secure network components, 4.1.3.1 Wireless access points

Security control volatility is a reference to the likelihood of change in the security control. Security control volatility is a factor that affects the selection, implementation, and maintenance of security controls in an organization. Security control volatility can be influenced by various internal and external factors, such as business needs, technology trends, regulatory requirements, threat landscape, and risk appetite. Security control volatility can have implications for the security posture, performance, and cost of the organization. The other options are not definitions of security control volatility, as they either do not relate to the change in the security control, or do not reflect the volatility aspect. References: CISSP - Certified Information Systems Security Professional, Domain 1. Security and Risk Management, 1.4 Understand and apply risk management concepts, 1.4.3 Determine risk management strategy, 1.4.3.1 Security control volatility; CISSP Exam Outline, Domain 1. Security and Risk Management, 1.4 Understand and apply risk management concepts, 1.4.3 Determine risk management strategy, 1.4.3.1 Security control volatility

An organization that has achieved a Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) level of 4 has done the following: achieved predictable process performance. CMMI is a framework that provides a set of best practices and guidelines for improving the capability and maturity of the processes of an organization, such as software development, service delivery, or project management. CMMI consists of five levels, each of which represents a different stage or degree of process improvement, from initial to optimized. The five levels of CMMI are:

• Level 1: Initial. This level indicates that the processes of the organization are ad hoc, chaotic, or inconsistent, and that the outcomes of the processes are unpredictable, unreliable, or unrepeatable.
• Level 2: Managed. This level indicates that the processes of the organization are planned, performed, measured, and controlled, and that the outcomes of the processes are manageable, stable, or repeatable.
• Level 3: Defined. This level indicates that the processes of the organization are well-defined, documented, standardized, and integrated, and that the outcomes of the processes are aligned with the goals and objectives of the organization.
• Level 4: Quantitatively Managed. This level indicates that the processes of the organization are quantitatively measured, analyzed, and optimized, and that the outcomes of the processes are predictable, consistent, or high-quality.
• Level 5: Optimizing. This level indicates that the processes of the organization are continuously monitored, evaluated, and improved, and that the outcomes of the processes are innovative, adaptive, or excellent.

An organization that has achieved a CMMI level of 4 has done the following: achieved predictable process performance, meaning that the organization has established quantitative objectives and metrics for the processes, and has used statistical and analytical techniques to monitor and control the variation and performance of the processes, and to ensure that the processes meet the expected or desired outcomes. An organization that has achieved a CMMI level of 4 has not done the following: addressed continuous innovative process improvement, addressed the causes of common process variance, or achieved optimized process performance, as these are the characteristics or achievements of a CMMI level of 5, which is the highest and most mature level of CMMI. References:

• CMMI
• CMMI Levels
• CMMI Level 4

The Information System Security Officer (ISSO) is the person who is responsible for ensuring that the appropriate operational security posture is maintained for an information system or program. The ISSO is also responsible for assessing the security impact of any significant changes to the system, such as configuration, patching, or upgrading. The ISSO should coordinate with the Information System Owner, the Authorizing Official, and the Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) to report and mitigate any security risks or issues arising from the system changes. References:

• 3: CISSP CBK, 4th edition, page 38
• [4]: CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, 3rd edition, page 125

A strongly typed programming language is a type of programming language that enforces strict rules and constraints on the data types and operations that can be used in the code. A strongly typed language prevents or detects errors such as type mismatch, type conversion, or memory allocation at compile time or run time, and ensures that the code executes safely and only as intended. A strongly typed language also supports features such as type inference, type checking, and type safety, which enhance the readability, maintainability, and security of the code. Examples of strongly typed languages are Java, C#, and Python. A strongly typed language is different from a weakly typed language, which is a type of programming language that allows more flexibility and leniency on the data types and operations that can be used in the code. A weakly typed language may perform implicit type conversion, type coercion, or type casting at run time, and may not detect or report errors until they cause unexpected or undesirable results. A weakly typed language may also have features such as dynamic typing, duck typing, or polymorphism, which enable the code to handle different types of data or objects at run time. Examples of weakly typed languages are JavaScript, PHP, and Perl. A strongly typed language is also different from a statically typed language, which is a type of programming language that assigns and checks the data types of variables and expressions at compile time. A statically typed language requires the programmer to declare the data types of variables and expressions explicitly in the code, and ensures that the code is consistent and compatible with the data types before execution. Examples of statically typed languages are C, C++, and Java. A statically typed language is also different from a dynamically typed language, which is a type of programming language that assigns and checks the data types of variables and expressions at run time. A dynamically typed language does not require the programmer to declare the data types of variables and expressions explicitly in the code, and allows the code to adapt and change the data types during execution. Examples of dynamically typed languages are Python, Ruby, and JavaScript. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 10: Software Development Security, page 657. Official (ISC)² CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 8: Software Development Security, page 1009.

Role mining to define common access patterns is the task that is performed in the planning phase of a Role Based Access Control (RBAC) implementation, and it is the most critical task in this phase. RBAC is a type of access control that grants or denies access to a system or a resource based on the roles that are assigned to the users. Roles are the collections of permissions or privileges that correspond to the functions or the responsibilities of the users in the organization. Role mining is a technique that involves analyzing the existing user accounts and their access rights, and identifying the common access patterns or the similarities among them. Role mining can help define the roles and the role hierarchies that are suitable for the organization, and that can simplify and optimize the access management process. Role mining can also help reduce the complexity and the redundancy of the access rights, and improve the security and the efficiency of the RBAC system. Role mining is performed in the planning phase of the RBAC implementation, which is the phase where the objectives, the scope, the requirements, and the resources for the RBAC system are defined and established. Role mining is the most critical task in this phase, as it can affect the design, the deployment, and the operation of the RBAC system, and it can determine the success or the failure of the RBAC implementation. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Identity and Access Management, page 219. CISSP Testking ISC Exam Questions, Question 17.

Information Technology Asset Management (ITAM) is the most effective tool in enabling the device on the network to be quickly located and remediated. ITAM is a process that tracks and manages the inventory, configuration, and lifecycle of the IT assets in an organization, such as hardware, software, and network devices. ITAM can help to identify and locate the device that is infected with malware, by providing information such as the device name, IP address, MAC address, serial number, location, owner, and status. ITAM can also help to remediate the device, by providing the necessary tools and procedures to isolate, quarantine, scan, clean, or replace the device. The other options are not as effective as ITAM, as they either do not locate or remediate the device, do not focus on the device level, or do not address the malware issue. References: CISSP - Certified Information Systems Security Professional, Domain 7. Security Operations, 7.1 Understand and support investigations, 7.1.2 Conduct logging and monitoring activities, 7.1.2.1 Asset management; CISSP Exam Outline, Domain 7. Security Operations, 7.1 Understand and support investigations, 7.1.2 Conduct logging and monitoring activities, 7.1.2.1 Asset management

 Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) is a security technique that randomizes the memory locations of the executable code, data, and libraries of a software application or system, making it harder for attackers to predict or manipulate the memory addresses of the target. ASLR reduces the potential for heap overflow attacks, which are a type of buffer overflow attack that exploit the memory allocation and deallocation functions of the heap, which is a dynamic memory area where variables and objects are stored during the execution of a program. Heap overflow attacks can result in arbitrary code execution, denial of service, or privilege escalation. ASLR makes heap overflow attacks more difficult by changing the base address of the heap each time the program runs, making it less likely for the attacker to find or overwrite the memory locations of the heap variables or objects. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 21: Software Development Security, pp. 2071-2072; [Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition], Domain 8: Software Development Security, pp. 1439-1440.

Encasing exposed cable runs in metal conduit is the most effective countermeasure to prevent electromagnetic emanations on unshielded data cable. Electromagnetic emanations are the unintentional radiation of electromagnetic signals from electronic devices, such as computers, monitors, or cables. These signals can be intercepted and analyzed by attackers to obtain sensitive information. Unshielded data cable, such as twisted pair or coaxial cable, is more susceptible to electromagnetic emanations than shielded cable, such as fiber optic cable. Encasing unshielded cable in metal conduit can reduce the amount of emanations and provide physical protection from tampering. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 164; [Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 238]

 User access review and adjustment is the action that should be triggered within the identity and access management (IAM) lifecycle when an employee transfers from one role to another. IAM is the process of identifying, authenticating, authorizing, and managing the users and their access rights to the organization’s resources and systems. The IAM lifecycle consists of four phases: provisioning, maintenance, review, and deprovisioning. When an employee transfers from one role to another, their access rights may need to be changed or updated to reflect their new responsibilities and duties. This requires a user access review and adjustment, which is part of the maintenance phase of the IAM lifecycle. User access review and adjustment involves verifying and validating the user’s identity and current access rights, and modifying or revoking the access rights as needed, based on the principle of least privilege and the organization’s policies and standards. The other options are not correct. New account creation is part of the provisioning phase of the IAM lifecycle, and it is not necessary when an employee transfers from one role to another, unless the employee needs to access a new system or resource that requires a separate account. Deprovisioning is part of the deprovisioning phase of the IAM lifecycle, and it involves deleting or disabling the user’s account and access rights when the user leaves the organization or no longer needs access to the system or resource. System account access review and adjustment is not a specific action within the IAM lifecycle, although it may be part of the user access review and adjustment process, if the user has access to system accounts or privileges. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Communication and Network Security, page 615. Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5: Communication and Network Security, page 616.

Attribute-based access control (ABAC) is a type of access control that includes a system that allows only users that are type=managers and department=sales to access employee records. ABAC is a flexible and granular access control model that uses attributes to define access rules and policies, and to make access decisions. Attributes are characteristics or properties of entities, such as users, resources, actions, or environments. For example, a user attribute can be the role, department, clearance, or location of the user. A resource attribute can be the type, classification, owner, or location of the resource. An action attribute can be the read, write, execute, or delete operation on the resource. An environment attribute can be the time, date, network address, or device of the access request. ABAC evaluates the attributes of the subject (user), the object (resource), the requested action, and the environment, and compares them with the predefined rules and policies to grant or deny access. For example, a rule can state that only users with the attribute type=managers and department=sales can access resources with the attribute type=employee records and action=read. ABAC can enforce dynamic and context-aware access control policies, and support complex scenarios involving multiple subjects, objects, and actions. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Identity and Access Management, page 294. Official (ISC)² CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 5: Identity and Access Management (IAM), page 607.

The volatility of data refers to the degree to which data can be lost or altered due to various factors, such as power loss, hardware failure, software error, or human intervention. In a digital forensics investigation, the volatility of data poses a challenge because it requires the investigator to follow a specific order of volatility when collecting and preserving evidence. The order of volatility is based on the principle that the most volatile data should be collected first, before it is overwritten or destroyed by less volatile data. The order of volatility typically includes the following types of data, from most volatile to least volatile: registers, cache, random access memory (RAM), routing tables, kernel statistics, process tables, network connections, executable files, swap files, hard disk, remote logging and monitoring data, physical configuration, network topology, archival media3 . References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 693; [CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, page 1049].

A watering hole attack is a type of attack that targets a specific group of users by compromising a website that they frequently visit. The attacker then uses the compromised website to deliver malware or exploit code to the visitors, hoping to infect their systems and gain access to their networks or data. A watering hole attack is dependent upon the compromise of a secondary target (the website) in order to reach the primary target (the users). A brute force attack, a spear phishing attack, and an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) poisoning attack are not dependent on compromising a secondary target. References:

• [7]: CISSP CBK, 4th edition, page 431
• [8]: CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, 3rd edition, page 129

The factor that leads the company to choose an IDaaS as their solution is that the in-house team lacks resources to support an on-premise solution. IDaaS is a cloud-based service that provides identity and access management capabilities, such as single sign-on, multi-factor authentication, or identity federation, to the users and applications of an organization. IDaaS can offer the following advantages over an on-premise solution, which is a solution that is installed and managed by the organization itself, on its own servers or infrastructure:

• It can reduce the cost and complexity of the solution, as the organization does not need to purchase, install, configure, or maintain the hardware, software, or network components of the solution.
• It can improve the scalability and availability of the solution, as the organization can easily adjust the capacity and performance of the solution, based on the demand and usage, and rely on the cloud service provider to ensure the uptime and reliability of the solution.
• It can enhance the security and compliance of the solution, as the organization can leverage the expertise and resources of the cloud service provider to protect the identity and access data and processes, and to meet the regulatory and industry standards and requirements. One of the factors that could lead the company to choose an IDaaS as their solution is that the in-house team lacks resources to support an on-premise solution. This could mean that the in-house team does not have the sufficient budget, staff, skills, or time to implement and manage an on-premise solution, and that the in-house team would benefit from outsourcing the identity and access management functions to a cloud service provider. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Chapter 5: Identity and Access Management, Section: Identity and Access Services, pp. 419-420.

The best option to minimize the risk of utility supply interruption for a hospital’s building controls system is to use digital protection and control devices capable of minimizing the adverse impact to critical utility. Digital protection and control devices are devices that monitor and regulate the utility supply, such as electricity, water, or gas, and detect and respond to any faults, anomalies, or disruptions in the utility supply. Digital protection and control devices can minimize the adverse impact to critical utility by isolating the affected components, switching to alternative sources, adjusting the load or demand, or activating backup or emergency systems. Digital protection and control devices can help to ensure the continuity and reliability of the utility supply, and to prevent or mitigate any potential damage or harm to the hospital’s building controls system, or to the patients and staff12. References: CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, page 383; CISSP Practice Exam – FREE 20 Questions and Answers, Question 17.

The final step in the waterfall method for contingency planning is maintenance. Contingency planning is a process that involves the identification, analysis, and preparation of the actions, measures, or solutions, that can be taken or implemented in the event of a disruption or interruption that may affect the organization, such as natural disasters, human errors, or cyberattacks. Contingency planning can help to ensure the continuity, availability, or reliability of the organization, as well as to protect the organization from various impacts or consequences of the disruption or interruption, such as loss of revenue, reputation, or customers. Contingency planning can follow various methods, models, or frameworks, such as the waterfall method, the agile method, or the spiral method, that can define, structure, or guide the contingency planning process, by using various phases, stages, or steps, such as initiation, planning, testing, implementation, or review. The final step in the waterfall method for contingency planning is maintenance, which means to monitor, update, or improve the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, that are taken or implemented in the event of a disruption or interruption, to ensure the effectiveness, efficiency, or relevance of the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, as well as to address any changes, issues, or feedbacks, that may arise or occur in the organization, environment, or situation. Maintenance can help to ensure the quality, performance, or compliance of the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, by providing a continuous, consistent, or adaptive process, that can evaluate, measure, or enhance the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions. Testing, implementation, or training are not the final steps in the waterfall method for contingency planning, as they are either more related to the other phases, stages, or steps, such as testing, which means to verify, validate, or simulate the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, that are taken or implemented in the event of a disruption or interruption, to ensure the functionality, reliability, or security of the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, implementation, which means to execute, activate, or apply the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, that are taken or implemented in the event of a disruption or interruption, to ensure the continuity, availability, or recovery of the organization, or training, which means to educate, instruct, or inform the personnel, stakeholders, or customers, about the contingency plan, actions, measures, or solutions, that are taken or implemented in the event of a disruption or interruption, to ensure the awareness, preparedness, or participation of the personnel, stakeholders, or customers, that are performed or conducted before the maintenance, during the contingency planning process, or to the other activities, tasks, or functions, such as verification, execution, or education, that are performed or conducted during the contingency planning process, rather than to the maintenance, during the contingency planning process. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Security Operations, page 443; CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Third Edition, Domain 7: Security Operations, Question 7.12, page 275.

According to the CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests3, the most suitable approach that the administrator should take when a user requests read-only access to files that are not considered sensitive in a Discretionary Access Control (DAC) methodology is to request data owner approval to the user access. DAC is a type of access control that grants or denies access to an object based on the identity and permissions of the subject, and the discretion of the owner of the object. The owner of the object has the authority and responsibility to determine who can access the object and what level of access they can have, such as read, write, execute, or delete. The owner can also delegate the access rights to other subjects or groups, or revoke them as needed. The administrator is the person who manages and maintains the system and the access control mechanisms, but does not have the authority to grant or deny access to the objects without the owner’s consent. Therefore, the administrator should request data owner approval to the user access, regardless of the sensitivity of the files, to ensure that the access is authorized and compliant with the DAC methodology. Requesting manager approval for the user access is not the most suitable approach, as the manager may not be the owner of the files, and may not have the authority or knowledge to grant or deny access to the files. Directly granting the access to the non-sensitive files is not the most suitable approach, as it may violate the DAC methodology and the owner’s discretion, and may introduce unauthorized or excessive access to the files. Assessing the user access need and either granting or denying the access is not the most suitable approach, as it may violate the DAC methodology and the owner’s discretion, and may introduce unauthorized or excessive access to the files. References: 3

The most important output from a mobile application threat modeling exercise according to OWASP is a data flow diagram for the application and attack surface analysis. A data flow diagram is a graphical representation of the data flows and processes within the application, as well as the external entities and boundaries that interact with the application. An attack surface analysis is a systematic evaluation of the potential vulnerabilities and threats that can affect the application, based on the data flow diagram and other sources of information. These two outputs can help identify and prioritize the security risks and requirements for the mobile application, as well as the countermeasures and mitigations for the vulnerabilities.

• A. Application interface entry and endpoints is not the most important output from a mobile application threat modeling exercise according to OWASP, but rather one of the components or elements of the data flow diagram. Application interface entry and endpoints are the points where the data enters or exits the application, such as user inputs, network connections, or API calls. These points can be the sources or targets of attacks, and they need to be properly secured and validated.
• B. The likelihood and impact of a vulnerability is not the most important output from a mobile application threat modeling exercise according to OWASP, but rather one of the factors or criteria for the risk assessment of the vulnerabilities. The likelihood and impact of a vulnerability are the measures of the probability and severity of the vulnerability being exploited, respectively. These measures can help determine the level of risk and the priority of the mitigation for the vulnerability.
• C. Countermeasures and mitigations for vulnerabilities is not the most important output from a mobile application threat modeling exercise according to OWASP, but rather one of the outcomes or objectives of the threat modeling exercise. Countermeasures and mitigations for vulnerabilities are the actions or controls that can prevent, reduce, or eliminate the vulnerabilities or their consequences. These actions or controls can be implemented at different stages of the mobile application development life cycle, such as design, coding, testing, or deployment.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 487; [Official

 According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide, a vulnerability in hardware would be the most difficult to detect. A vulnerability is a weakness or exposure in a system, network, or application, which may be exploited by threats and cause harm to the organization or its assets. A vulnerability can exist in various components of a system, network, or application, such as the kernel, the shared libraries, the hardware, or the system application. A vulnerability in hardware would be the most difficult to detect, as it may require physical access, specialized tools, or advanced skills to identify and measure the vulnerability. Hardware is the physical or tangible component of a system, network, or application that provides the basic functionality, performance, and support for the system, network, or application, such as the processor, memory, disk, or network card. Hardware may have vulnerabilities due to design flaws, manufacturing defects, configuration errors, or physical damage. A vulnerability in hardware may affect the security, reliability, or availability of the system, network, or application, such as causing data leakage, performance degradation, or system failure. A vulnerability in the kernel would not be the most difficult to detect, although it may be a difficult to detect. The kernel is the core or central component of a system, network, or application that provides the basic functionality, performance, and control for the system, network, or application, such as the operating system, the hypervisor, or the firmware. The kernel may have vulnerabilities due to design flaws, coding errors, configuration errors, or malicious modifications. A vulnerability in the kernel may affect the security, reliability, or availability of the system, network, or application, such as causing privilege escalation, system compromise, or system crash. A vulnerability in the kernel may be detected by using various tools, techniques, or methods, such as code analysis, vulnerability scanning, or penetration testing. A vulnerability in the shared libraries would not be the most difficult to detect, although it may be a difficult to detect. The shared libraries are the reusable or common components of a system, network, or application, that provide the functionality, performance, and compatibility for the system, network, or application, such as the dynamic link libraries, the application programming interfaces, or the frameworks. 

Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a protocol that encapsulates a packet of one protocol type within another protocol type4. When using GRE tunneling over IPv4, the GRE header is inserted between the delivery header and the payload5. The delivery header contains the new source and destination IP addresses of the tunnel endpoints, while the payload contains the original IP packet4. The GRE header contains information such as protocol type, checksum, and key6.

The best configuration management practice is to create and maintain a baseline configuration for all relevant systems. A baseline configuration is a documented and approved set of specifications and settings for a system or component that serves as a standard for comparison and evaluation. A baseline configuration can help ensure the consistency, security, and performance of the system or component, as well as facilitate the identification and resolution of any deviations or issues. A baseline configuration should be updated and reviewed regularly to reflect the changes and improvements made to the system or component12 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Security Operations, p. 456; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 7: Security Operations, p. 869.

 To protect auditable information, transaction log files must be configured to only allow read access. Transaction log files are files that record and store the details or the history of the transactions or the activities that occur within a system or a database, such as the date, the time, the user, the action, or the outcome. Transaction log files are important for auditing purposes, as they can provide the evidence or the proof of the transactions or the activities that occur within a system or a database, and they can also support the recovery or the restoration of the system or the database in case of a failure or a corruption. To protect auditable information, transaction log files must be configured to only allow read access, which means that only authorized users or devices can view or access the transaction log files, but they cannot modify, delete, or overwrite the transaction log files. This can prevent or reduce the risk of tampering, alteration, or destruction of the auditable information, and it can also ensure the integrity, the accuracy, or the reliability of the auditable information.

• A. Logging configurations are not the files that must be configured to only allow read access to protect auditable information, but rather the settings or the parameters that determine or control how the logging or the recording of the transactions or the activities within a system or a database is performed, such as the frequency, the format, the location, or the retention of the log files. Logging configurations can affect the quality or the quantity of the auditable information, but they are not the auditable information themselves.
• C. User account configurations are not the files that must be configured to only allow read access to protect auditable information, but rather the settings or the parameters that define or manage the user accounts or the identities of the users or the devices that access or use a system or a database, such as the username, the password, the role, or the permissions. User account configurations can affect the security or the access of the system or the database, but they are not the auditable information themselves.
• D. Access control lists (ACL) are not the files that must be configured to only allow read access to protect auditable information, but rather the data structures or the files that store and manage the access control rules or policies for a system or a resource, such as a file, a folder, or a network. An ACL specifies the permissions or the privileges that the users or the devices have or do not have for the system or the resource, such as read, write, execute, or delete. ACLs can affect the security or the access of the system or the resource, but they are not the auditable information themselves.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 197; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7, page 354

After acquiring the latest security updates, the best practice is to install the patches on a test system before deploying them to the production systems. This is to ensure that the patches are compatible with the system configuration and do not cause any adverse effects or conflicts with the existing applications or services. The test system should be isolated from the production environment and should have the same or similar specifications and settings as the production system.

• A. Use tools to detect missing system patches is not something that must be done after acquiring the latest security updates, but rather something that must be done before acquiring the security updates. This is to identify the current patch level and the patch requirements of the system.
• C. Subscribe to notifications for vulnerabilities is not something that must be done after acquiring the latest security updates, but rather something that must be done as part of the ongoing patch management process. This is to stay informed of the latest security threats and vulnerabilities and the corresponding patches or mitigations.
• D. Assess the severity of the situation is not something that must be done after acquiring the latest security updates, but rather something that must be done before acquiring the security updates. This is to prioritize the patching activities based on the risk and impact of the vulnerabilities.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 336; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, page 297

According to the CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, the property that is prioritized by a Mandatory Access Control (MAC) model for implementation is confidentiality. Confidentiality is the property that ensures that the data or information is only accessible or disclosed to the authorized parties, and is protected from unauthorized or unintended access or disclosure. A MAC model is a type of access control model that grants or denies access to an object based on the security labels of the subject and the object, and the security policy enforced by the system. A security label is a tag or a marker that indicates the classification, sensitivity, or clearance of the subject or the object, such as top secret, secret, or confidential. A security policy is a set of rules or criteria that defines how the access decisions are made based on the security labels, such as the Bell-LaPadula model or the Biba model. A MAC model prioritizes confidentiality, as it ensures that the data or information is only accessible or disclosed to the subjects that have the appropriate security labels and clearance, and that the data or information is not leaked or compromised by the subjects that have lower security labels or clearance. Integrity is not the property that is prioritized by a MAC model for implementation, although it may be a property that is supported or enhanced by a MAC model. Integrity is the property that ensures that the data or information is accurate, complete, and consistent, and is protected from unauthorized or unintended modification or corruption. A MAC model may support or enhance integrity, as it ensures that the data or information is only modified or corrupted by the subjects that have the appropriate security labels and clearance, and that the data or information is not altered or damaged by the subjects that have lower security labels or clearance. However, a MAC model does not prioritize integrity, as it does not prevent or detect the modification or corruption of the data or information by the subjects that have the same or higher security labels or clearance, or by the external factors or events, such as errors, failures, or accidents. Availability is not the property that is prioritized by a MAC model for implementation, although it may be a property that is supported or enhanced by a MAC model. Availability is the property that ensures that the data or information is accessible and usable by the authorized parties, and is protected from unauthorized or unintended denial or disruption of access or use. A MAC model may support or enhance availability, as it ensures that the data or information is accessible and usable by the subjects that have the appropriate security labels and clearance, and that the data or information is not denied or disrupted by the subjects that have lower security labels or clearance. However, a MAC model does not prioritize availability, as it does not prevent or detect the denial or disruption of access or use of the data or information by the subjects that have the same or higher security labels or clearance, or by the external factors or events, such as attacks, failures, or disasters. Accessibility is not the property that is prioritized by a MAC model for implementation, as it is not a security property, but a usability property. Accessibility is the property that ensures that the data or information is accessible and usable by the users with different abilities, needs, or preferences, such as the users with disabilities, impairments, or limitations. Accessibility is not a security property, as it does not protect the data or information from unauthorized or unintended access, disclosure, modification, corruption, denial, or disruption. Accessibility is a usability property, as it enhances the user experience and satisfaction of the data or information. 

According to the NIST Cybersecurity Framework, the control categories that the company needs to improve when analyzing its processes individually are Asset Management, Business Environment, Governance and Risk Assessment. These control categories are part of the Identify function, which is one of the five core functions of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework. The Identify function is the function that provides the foundational understanding and awareness of the organization’s systems, assets, data, capabilities, and risks, as well as the role and contribution of the organization to the critical infrastructure and the society. The Identify function helps the organization to prioritize and align its cybersecurity activities and resources with its business objectives and requirements, as well as to establish and maintain its cybersecurity policies and standards. The Identify function consists of six control categories, which are the specific outcomes or goals that the organization should achieve for each function. The control categories for the Identify function are:

• Asset Management: The data, personnel, devices, systems, and facilities that enable the organization to achieve business purposes are identified and managed consistent with their relative importance to organizational objectives and the organization’s risk strategy.
• Business Environment: The organization’s mission, objectives, stakeholders, and activities are understood and prioritized; this information is used to inform cybersecurity roles, responsibilities, and risk management decisions.
• Governance: The policies, procedures, and processes to manage and monitor the organization’s regulatory, legal, risk, environmental, and operational requirements are understood and inform the management of cybersecurity risk.
• Risk Assessment: The organization understands the cybersecurity risk to organizational operations (including mission, functions, image, or reputation), organizational assets, and individuals.
• Risk Management Strategy: The organization’s priorities, constraints, risk tolerances, and assumptions are established and used to support operational risk decisions.
• Supply Chain Risk Management: The organization’s priorities, constraints, risk tolerances, and assumptions are established and used to support risk decisions associated with managing supply chain risk. The organization has established and implemented the processes to identify, assess and manage supply chain risks.

The company was ranked as high in the following NIST functions: Protect, Detect, Respond and Recover. However, a low maturity grade was attributed to the Identify function. This means that the company has a good level of capability and performance in implementing and executing the cybersecurity activities and controls that are related to the other four functions, but it has a low level of capability and performance in implementing and executing the cybersecurity activities and controls that are related to the Identify function. Therefore, the company needs to improve its processes and controls that are related to the Identify function, which are the Asset Management, Business Environment, Governance, Risk Assessment, Risk Management Strategy, and Supply Chain Risk Management control categories. By improving these control categories, the company can enhance its foundational understanding and awareness of its systems, assets, data, capabilities, and risks, as well as its role and contribution to the critical infrastructure and the society. The company can also better prioritize and align its cybersecurity activities and resources with its business objectives and requirements, as well as establish and maintain its cybersecurity policies and standards. Access Control, Awareness and Training, Data Security and Maintenance are not the control categories that the company needs to improve when analyzing its processes individually, as they are part of the Protect function, not the Identify function. The Protect function is the function that provides the appropriate safeguards and countermeasures to ensure the delivery of critical services and to limit or contain the impact of potential cybersecurity incidents. The Protect function consists of eight control categories, which are:

• Access Control: Access to assets and associated facilities is limited to authorized users, processes, or devices, and to authorized activities and transactions.
• Awareness and Training: The organization’s personnel and partners are provided cybersecurity awareness education and are adequately trained to perform their information security-related duties and responsibilities consistent with related policies, procedures, and agreements.
• Data Security: Information and records (data) are managed consistent with the organization’s risk strategy to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information.
• Information Protection Processes and Procedures: Security policies (that address purpose, scope, roles, responsibilities, management commitment, and coordination among organizational entities), processes, and procedures are maintained and used to manage protection of information systems and assets.
• Maintenance: Maintenance and repairs of industrial control and information system components is performed consistent with policies and procedures.
• Protective Technology: Technical security solutions are managed to ensure the security and resilience of systems and assets, consistent with related policies, procedures, and agreements.

The company was ranked as high in the Protect function, which means that it has a good level of capability and performance in implementing and executing the cybersecurity activities and controls that are related to the Protect function. Therefore, the company does not need to improve its processes and controls that are related to the Protect function, which are the Access Control, Awareness and Training, Data Security, Information Protection Processes and Procedures, Maintenance, and Protective Technology control categories. Anomalies and Events, Security Continuous Monitoring and Detection Processes are not the control categories that the company needs to improve when analyzing its processes individually, as they are part of the Detect function, not the Identify function. The Detect function is the function that provides the appropriate activities and capabilities to identify the occurrence of a cybersecurity incident in a timely manner. The Detect function consists of three control categories, which are:

• Anomalies and Events: Anomalous activity is detected in a timely manner and the potential impact of events is understood.
• Security Continuous Monitoring: The information system and assets are monitored at discrete intervals to identify cybersecurity events and verify the effectiveness of protective measures.
• Detection Processes: Detection processes and procedures are maintained and tested to ensure timely and adequate awareness of anomalous events.

The company was ranked as high in the Detect function, which means that it has a good level of capability and performance in implementing and executing the cybersecurity activities and controls that are related to the Detect function. Therefore, the company does not need to improve its processes and controls that are related to the Detect function, which are the Anomalies and Events, Security Continuous Monitoring, and Detection Processes control categories. Recovery Planning, Improvements and Communications are not the control categories that the company needs to improve when analyzing its processes individually, as they are part of the Recover function, not the Identify function. The Recover function is the function that provides the appropriate activities and capabilities to restore the normal operations and functions of the organization as quickly as possible after a cybersecurity incident, as well as to prevent or reduce the recurrence or impact of future incidents. The Recover function consists of three control categories, which are:

• Recovery Planning: Recovery processes and procedures are executed and maintained to ensure timely restoration of systems or assets affected by cybersecurity incidents.
• Improvements: Recovery planning and processes are improved by incorporating lessons learned into future activities.
• Communications: Restoration activities are coordinated with internal and external parties, such as coordinating centers, Internet Service Providers, owners of attacking systems, victims, other CSIRTs, and vendors.

The company was ranked as high in the Recover function, which means that it has a good level of capability and performance in implementing and executing the cybersecurity activities and controls that are related to the Recover function. Therefore, the company does not need to improve its processes and controls that are related to the Recover function, which are the Recovery Planning, Improvements, and Communications control categories.

 The greatest challenge to identifying data leaks is having a documented asset classification policy and clear labeling of assets. Data leaks are the unauthorized or accidental disclosure or exposure of sensitive or confidential data, such as personal information, trade secrets, or intellectual property. Data leaks can cause serious damage or harm to the data owner, such as reputation loss, legal liability, or competitive disadvantage. The greatest challenge to identifying data leaks is having a documented asset classification policy and clear labeling of assets, which means that the organization has defined and implemented the rules and guidelines for categorizing and marking the data according to their sensitivity, value, or criticality. Having a documented asset classification policy and clear labeling of assets can help to identify data leaks by enabling the detection, tracking, and reporting of the data movements, access, or usage, and by alerting the data owner, custodian, or user of any unauthorized or abnormal data activities or incidents. The other options are not the greatest challenges, but rather the benefits or enablers of identifying data leaks. Available technical tools that enable user activity monitoring are not the greatest challenges, but rather the benefits, of identifying data leaks, as they can provide the means or mechanisms for collecting, analyzing, and auditing the data actions or behaviors of the users or devices. Senior management cooperation in investigating suspicious behavior is not the greatest challenge, but rather the enabler, of identifying data leaks, as it can provide the support or authority for conducting the data leak investigation and taking the appropriate actions or measures. Law enforcement participation to apprehend and interrogate suspects is not the greatest challenge, but rather the enabler, of identifying data leaks, as it can provide the assistance or collaboration for pursuing and prosecuting the data leak perpetrators or offenders. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, p. 29; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, p. 287.

The Systems Engineering Life Cycle (SELC) Technical Processes are the activities that transform stakeholder needs into a system solution. They include the following five processes: Stakeholder Requirements Definition, Architectural Design, Implementation, Verification, and Operation.

References:

• Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 8, p. 489.
• CISSP practice exam questions and answers, Question 11.

 According to the CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide2, the most important goal of information asset valuation is to assign a financial value to an organization’s information assets. Information asset valuation is the process of estimating the worth or importance of the information assets that an organization owns, creates, uses, or maintains, such as data, documents, records, or intellectual property. Information asset valuation helps the organization to measure the impact and return of its information assets, as well as to determine the appropriate level of protection, investment, and management for them. Information asset valuation also helps the organization to comply with the legal, regulatory, and contractual obligations that may require the disclosure or reporting of the value of its information assets. Developing a consistent and uniform method of controlling access on information assets is not the most important goal of information asset valuation, although it may be a benefit or outcome of it. Controlling access on information assets is the process of granting or denying the rights and permissions to access, use, modify, or disclose the information assets, based on the identity, role, or need of the users or processes. Controlling access on information assets helps the organization to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of its information assets, as well as to enforce the security policies and standards for them. Developing appropriate access control policies and guidelines is not the most important goal of information asset valuation, although it may be a benefit or outcome of it. Access control policies and guidelines are the documents that define the rules, principles, and procedures for controlling access on information assets, as well as the roles and responsibilities of the stakeholders involved. Access control policies and guidelines help the organization to establish and communicate the expectations and requirements for controlling access on information assets, as well as to monitor and audit the compliance and effectiveness of the access control mechanisms. Determining the appropriate level of protection is not the most important goal of information asset valuation, although it may be a benefit or outcome of it. The level of protection is the degree or extent of the security measures and controls that are applied to the information assets, to prevent or mitigate the potential threats and risks that may affect them. The level of protection should be proportional to the value and sensitivity of the information assets, as well as the impact and likelihood of the threats and risks. References: 2

Companies are not legally required to report all data breaches, as different jurisdictions have different rules and regulations regarding data breach notification. For example, in the European Union, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) requires companies to report data breaches that pose a risk to the rights and freedoms of individuals within 72 hours of becoming aware of the breach. In the United States, there is no federal law that mandates data breach notification, but most states have their own laws that vary in terms of the definition, scope, and timing of data breach notification.

• B. No, not if the data is encrypted is not a correct answer, as encryption does not necessarily exempt companies from reporting data breaches. Encryption can reduce the risk and impact of data breaches, but it does not guarantee that the data is completely protected from unauthorized access or disclosure. Depending on the jurisdiction and the type of data, companies may still have to report data breaches even if the data is encrypted.
• C. No, companies’ codes of ethics don’t require it is not a correct answer, as codes of ethics are not legal requirements, but rather voluntary principles and values that guide the conduct and behavior of companies and their employees. Codes of ethics may or may not include provisions for data breach notification, but they do not override the legal obligations of companies to report data breaches according to the applicable laws and regulations.
• D. No, only if the breach had a material impact is not a correct answer, as the materiality of the impact is not the only factor that determines whether companies have to report data breaches. The materiality of the impact may vary depending on the nature, scope, and context of the data breach, as well as the expectations and interests of the affected parties. Some jurisdictions may require companies to report data breaches regardless of the materiality of the impact, while others may have different thresholds or criteria for data breach notification.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, page 36; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, page 32

SSL encryption is used to secure communications over computer networks by encrypting data transmitted between two systems—usually your computer and a server.

References:

• CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, p. 303.
• CISSP practice exam questions and answers, Question 10.

When planning a penetration test, the tester will be most interested in the exploits that can attack the weaknesses of the target system or network. Exploits are the techniques or tools that take advantage of the vulnerabilities to compromise the security or functionality of the system or network. The tester will use the exploits to simulate a real attack and test the effectiveness of the security controls and defenses.

• A. Places to install back doors is not the information that the tester will be most interested in when planning a penetration test, but rather the possible outcome or objective of the test. Back doors are the hidden or unauthorized access points that allow the attacker to bypass the security mechanisms and gain persistent access to the system or network.
• B. The main network access points is not the information that the tester will be most interested in when planning a penetration test, but rather the preliminary information that the tester will need to obtain during the reconnaissance phase of the test. The main network access points are the devices or interfaces that connect the network to other networks or the internet, such as routers, switches, firewalls, or gateways.
• C. Job application handouts and tours is not the information that the tester will be most interested in when planning a penetration test, but rather the potential source of information that the tester could use for social engineering or physical penetration. Job application handouts and tours are the materials or activities that the organization provides to the prospective employees or visitors, which could reveal some details about the organization’s structure, culture, or operations.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7, page 424; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7, page 378

According to the CISSP For Dummies4, the activity that would present a significant security risk to organizations when employing a VPN solution is simultaneous connection to other networks. A VPN is a technology that creates a secure and encrypted tunnel over a public or untrusted network, such as the internet, to connect remote users or sites to the organization’s private network, such as the intranet. A VPN provides security and privacy for the data and communication that are transmitted over the tunnel, as well as access to the network resources and services that are available on the private network. However, a VPN also introduces some security risks and challenges, such as configuration errors, authentication issues, malware infections, or data leakage. One of the security risks of a VPN is simultaneous connection to other networks, which occurs when a VPN user connects to the organization’s private network and another network at the same time, such as a home network, a public Wi-Fi network, or a malicious network. This creates a potential vulnerability or backdoor for the attackers to access or compromise the organization’s private network, by exploiting the weaker security or lower trust of the other network. Therefore, the organization should implement and enforce policies and controls to prevent or restrict the simultaneous connection to other networks when using a VPN solution. VPN bandwidth is not an activity that would present a significant security risk to organizations when employing a VPN solution, although it may be a factor that affects the performance and availability of the VPN solution. VPN bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted or received over the VPN tunnel per unit of time, which depends on the speed and capacity of the network connection, the encryption and compression methods, the traffic load, and the network congestion. VPN bandwidth may limit the quality and efficiency of the data and communication that are transmitted over the VPN tunnel, but it does not directly pose a significant security risk to the organization’s private network. Users with IP addressing conflicts is not an activity that would present a significant security risk to organizations when employing a VPN solution, although it may be a factor that causes errors and disruptions in the VPN solution. IP addressing conflicts occur when two or more devices or hosts on the same network have the same IP address, which is a unique identifier that is assigned to each device or host to communicate over the network.

The modification of Certificate Revocation List (CRL) could elicit a Denial of Service (DoS) attack against a credential management system by altering the list of revoked certificates and preventing valid users from accessing the system or allowing invalid users to access the system. A CRL is a list of digital certificates that have been revoked by the issuing Certificate Authority (CA) before their expiration date and should not be trusted.

• A. Delayed revocation or destruction of credentials is not a factor that could elicit a DoS attack against a credential management system, but rather a risk that could compromise the security and validity of the credentials and the system.
• C. Unauthorized renewal or re-issuance is not a factor that could elicit a DoS attack against a credential management system, but rather a threat that could result in the misuse or impersonation of the credentials and the system.
• D. Token use after decommissioning is not a factor that could elicit a DoS attack against a credential management system, but rather an issue that could affect the availability and performance of the system.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, page 216; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, page 183

The best action after finding 50% of the systems with one or more critical vulnerabilities is to assess the vulnerability risk and business impact. This means to evaluate the likelihood and severity of the vulnerabilities being exploited, as well as the potential consequences and costs for the business operations and objectives. This assessment can help prioritize the remediation efforts, allocate the resources, and justify the investments.

• A. Assess vulnerability risk and program effectiveness is not the best action after finding 50% of the systems with one or more critical vulnerabilities, because it does not consider the business impact of the vulnerabilities, which is essential for risk management and decision making.
• C. Disconnect all systems with critical vulnerabilities is not the best action after finding 50% of the systems with one or more critical vulnerabilities, because it could disrupt the business continuity and availability, and it could also be impractical or impossible to disconnect such a large number of systems.
• D. Disconnect systems with the most number of vulnerabilities is not the best action after finding 50% of the systems with one or more critical vulnerabilities, because it does not account for the severity and exploitability of the vulnerabilities, and it could also affect the business operations and performance.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 343; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6, page 304

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, the best course of action for the database administrator in this scenario is to inform the audit committee or internal audit directly using the corporate whistleblower process. A whistleblower is a person who reports or exposes any wrongdoing, fraud, corruption, or illegal activity within an organization to the appropriate authorities or parties. A whistleblower process is a mechanism that enables and protects the whistleblowers from any retaliation or discrimination, and ensures that their reports are handled properly and confidentially. The database administrator should inform the audit committee or internal audit directly using the corporate whistleblower process, as this would demonstrate their professional ethics and responsibility, as well as their compliance with the organizational policies and standards. The database administrator should not ignore the request and do not perform the change, as this would be unprofessional and irresponsible, and may also expose them to potential pressure or threats from the high-ranking member of management. The database administrator should not perform the change as requested, and rely on the next audit to detect and report the situation, as this would be unethical and illegal, and may also compromise the integrity and reliability of the accounting system database. The database administrator should not perform the change, but create a change ticket regardless to ensure there is complete traceability, as this would be dishonest and risky, and may also create a conflict or discrepancy with the high-ranking member of management. References: 1

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is the only option that secures web transactions at the transport layer of the OSI model. SSL is a protocol or a standard that provides security and privacy for the data or the messages exchanged between a web browser and a web server, or between any two applications that use the TCP/IP protocol. SSL uses cryptographic techniques, such as encryption, decryption, hashing, and digital signatures, to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of the data or the messages. SSL also uses certificates and public key infrastructure (PKI) to establish the identity and the trustworthiness of the parties involved in the web transactions.

• A. Secure HyperText Transfer Protocol (S-HTTP) is not a protocol or a standard that secures web transactions at the transport layer of the OSI model, but rather a protocol or a standard that secures web transactions at the application layer of the OSI model. S-HTTP is a protocol or a standard that provides security and privacy for the individual messages or requests within a web transaction, such as a web page, a form, or a file, by using cryptographic techniques, such as encryption, decryption, hashing, and digital signatures. S-HTTP is not widely used, and it is not compatible with SSL or its successor, Transport Layer Security (TLS).
• C. Socket Security (SOCKS) is not a protocol or a standard that secures web transactions at the transport layer of the OSI model, but rather a protocol or a standard that enables web transactions across different network protocols or architectures, by using a proxy server. SOCKS is a protocol or a standard that allows applications to communicate with other applications on a different network, without requiring any changes to the applications or the networks. SOCKS can provide some security features, such as authentication or encryption, but it is not designed to secure web transactions.
• D. Secure Shell (SSH) is not a protocol or a standard that secures web transactions at the transport layer of the OSI model, but rather a protocol or a standard that secures remote access or administration of a system or a network, by using a secure channel. SSH is a protocol or a standard that provides security and privacy for the commands or the data exchanged between a client and a server, or between two systems or networks, by using cryptographic techniques, such as encryption, decryption, hashing, and digital signatures. SSH also uses public key authentication and key exchange to establish the identity and the trustworthiness of the parties involved in the remote access or administration.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4, page 215; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4, page 182

White-box testing is recommended during the development phase as it involves the examination of the application’s source code and design documents to identify vulnerabilities, ensuring that security is integrated into the development lifecycle. References: CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Chapter 8, page 219

Record destruction requirements are included in a data retention policy to ensure that organizations comply with legal and business requirements. Proper disposal of records helps in protecting sensitive information from unauthorized access and also ensures compliance with laws regulating the storage and disposal of data. References: CISSP Official (ISC)2 Practice Tests, Chapter 1, page 32; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, page 40

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide1, the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories is change management. SDLC is a structured process that is used to design, develop, and test good-quality software. SDLC consists of several phases or stages that cover the entire life cycle of the software, from the initial idea or concept to the final deployment or maintenance of the software. SDLC aims to deliver high-quality, maintainable software that meets the user’s requirements and fits within the budget and schedule of the project. Change management is the process of controlling or managing the changes or modifications that are made to the software or the system during the SDLC, by using or applying the appropriate methods or mechanisms, such as the policies, procedures, or tools of the project. Change management helps to ensure the security or the integrity of the software or the system, as well as the quality or the performance of the software or the system, by preventing or minimizing the risks or the impacts of the changes or modifications that may affect or impair the software or the system, such as the errors, defects, or vulnerabilities of the software or the system. Maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories is a critical part of change management, as it provides or supports a reliable or consistent source or basis to identify or track the hardware and software components or elements that are involved or included in the software or the system, as well as the changes or modifications that are made to the hardware and software components or elements during the SDLC, such as the name, description, version, status, or value of the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system. Maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories helps to ensure the security or the integrity of the software or the system, as well as the quality or the performance of the software or the system, by enabling or facilitating the monitoring, evaluation, or improvement of the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system, by using or applying the appropriate methods or mechanisms, such as the reporting, auditing, or optimization of the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system. Systems integration is not the SDLC phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories, although it may be a benefit or a consequence of change management. Systems integration is the process of combining or integrating the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system, by using or applying the appropriate methods or mechanisms, such as the interfaces, protocols, or standards of the project. Systems integration helps to ensure the functionality or the interoperability of the software or the system, as well as the compatibility or the consistency of the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system, by ensuring or verifying that the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system work or operate together or with other systems or networks, as intended or expected by the user or the client of the software or the system. Systems integration may be a benefit or a consequence of change management, as change management may provide or support a framework or a guideline to perform or conduct the systems integration, by controlling or managing the changes or modifications that are made to the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system, as well as by maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories of the software or the system. However, systems integration is not the SDLC phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories, as it is not the main or the most important objective or purpose of systems integration, which is to combine or integrate the hardware and software components or elements of the software or the system. Risk management is not the SDLC phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories, although it may be a benefit or a consequence of change management. Risk management is the process of identifying, analyzing, evaluating, and treating the risks or the uncertainties that may affect or impair the software or the system, by using or applying the appropriate methods or mechanisms, such as the policies, procedures, or tools of the project. Risk management helps to ensure the security or the integrity of the software or the system, as well as the quality or the performance of the software or the system, by preventing or minimizing the impact or the consequence of the risks or the uncertainties that may harm or damage the software or the system, such as the threats, attacks, or incidents of the software or the system. Risk management may be a benefit or a consequence of change management, as change management may provide or support a framework or a guideline to perform or conduct the risk management, by controlling or managing the changes or modifications that are made to the software or the system, as well as by maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories of the software or the system. However, risk management is not the SDLC phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories, as it is not the main or the most important objective or purpose of risk management, which is to identify, analyze, evaluate, and treat the risks or the uncertainties of the software or the system. Quality assurance is not the SDLC phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories, although it may be a benefit or a consequence of change management. Quality assurance is the process of ensuring or verifying the quality or the performance of the software or the system, by using or applying the appropriate methods or mechanisms, such as the standards, criteria, or metrics of the project. Quality assurance helps to ensure the security or the integrity of the software or the system, as well as the quality or the performance of the software or the system, by preventing or detecting the errors, defects, or vulnerabilities of the software or the system, by using or applying the appropriate methods or mechanisms, such as the testing, validation, or verification of the software or the system. Quality assurance may be a benefit or a consequence of change management, as change management may provide or support a framework or a guideline to perform or conduct the quality assurance, by controlling or managing the changes or modifications that are made to the software or the system, as well as by maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories of the software or the system. However, quality assurance is not the SDLC phase that requires maintaining accurate hardware and software inventories, as it is not the main or the most important objective or purpose of quality assurance, which is to ensure or verify the quality or the performance of the software or the system.

According to the CISSP For Dummies, the role that is directly responsible for data within an organization is the information owner. The information owner is the person or role that has the authority and accountability for the data or information that the organization owns, creates, uses, or maintains, such as data, documents, records, or intellectual property. The information owner is responsible for defining the classification, value, and sensitivity of the data or information, as well as the security requirements, policies, and standards for the data or information. The information owner is also responsible for granting or revoking the access rights and permissions to the data or information, as well as for monitoring and auditing the compliance and effectiveness of the security controls and mechanisms for the data or information. The data custodian is not the role that is directly responsible for data within an organization, although it may be a role that supports or assists the information owner. The data custodian is the person or role that has the responsibility for implementing and maintaining the security controls and mechanisms for the data or information, as defined by the information owner. The data custodian is responsible for performing the technical and operational tasks and activities for the data or information, such as backup, recovery, encryption, or disposal. The database administrator is not the role that is directly responsible for data within an organization, although it may be a role that supports or assists the information owner or the data custodian. The database administrator is the person or role that has the responsibility for managing and administering the database system that stores and processes the data or information. The database administrator is responsible for performing the technical and operational tasks and activities for the database system, such as installation, configuration, optimization, or troubleshooting.

the service of non-repudiation from a cryptographic perspective includes the proof of integrity of the message. This means that non-repudiation is a service that ensures that the sender of a message cannot deny sending it, and the receiver of a message cannot deny receiving it, by providing evidence that the message has not been altered or tampered with during transmission. Non-repudiation can be achieved by using digital signatures and certificates, which are cryptographic techniques that bind the identity of the sender to the content of the message, and verify that the message has not been modified. Non-repudiation does not include the validity of digital certificates, as this is a service that ensures that the certificates are authentic, current, and trustworthy, by checking their expiration dates, revocation status, and issuing authorities. Non-repudiation does not include the validity of the authorization rules, as this is a service that ensures that the access to a resource is granted or denied based on the policies and permissions defined by the owner or administrator. Non-repudiation does not include the proof of authenticity of the message, as this is a service that ensures that the message comes from the claimed sender, by verifying their identity and credentials. 

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 27000 family of standards/guidelines requires an Information Security Management System (ISMS) to be defined. An ISMS is a systematic approach to managing the security of information assets, such as data, systems, processes, and people. An ISMS includes policies, procedures, controls, and activities that aim to protect the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information, as well as to comply with the legal and regulatory requirements. The ISO 27000 family provides best practices and guidance for establishing, implementing, maintaining, and improving an ISMS. The ISO 27001 standard specifies the requirements for an ISMS, while the other standards in the family provide more detailed or specific guidance on different aspects of information security34 References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, p. 23; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 1: Security and Risk Management, p. 25.

According to the CISSP CBK Official Study Guide, a chosen plaintext attack is a type of cryptanalysis that allows the cryptanalyst to generate ciphertext from arbitrary text. A cryptanalysis is the process of breaking or analyzing a cryptographic system or algorithm, by finding the plaintext, the key, or the algorithm from the ciphertext, or by exploiting the weaknesses or vulnerabilities of the system or algorithm. A chosen plaintext attack is a scenario where the cryptanalyst has access to the encryption function or device, and can choose any plaintext and obtain the corresponding ciphertext. A chosen plaintext attack can help the cryptanalyst to deduce the key or the algorithm, or to create a codebook or a dictionary that maps the plaintext to the ciphertext. The cryptanalyst does not examine the communication being sent back and forth, as this would be a ciphertext-only attack, where the cryptanalyst only has access to the ciphertext, and tries to infer the plaintext, the key, or the algorithm from the statistical or linguistic analysis of the ciphertext. The cryptanalyst does not choose the key and algorithm to mount the attack, as this would be a known plaintext attack, where the cryptanalyst has access to some pairs of plaintext and ciphertext that are encrypted with the same key and algorithm, and tries to find the key or the algorithm from the correlation or pattern between the plaintext and the ciphertext. The cryptanalyst is not presented with the ciphertext from which the original message is determined, as this would be a decryption problem, where the cryptanalyst has access to the ciphertext and the key or the algorithm, and tries to recover the plaintext from the ciphertext.

Discretionary Access Control (DAC) restricts access according to authorizations granted to the user. DAC is a type of access control that allows the owner or creator of a resource to decide who can access it and what level of access they can have. DAC uses access control lists (ACLs) to assign permissions to resources, and users can pass or change their permissions to other users

The final step before the application can be accredited is the acceptance of risk by the authorizing official, who is responsible for making the final decision on whether to authorize the operation of the system or not. The authorizing official must review the results of the evaluation, the System Security Plan (SSP), and the residual risks, and determine if the risks are acceptable or not. The other options are not the final step, but rather part of the accreditation process. Remediation of vulnerabilities is done before the evaluation, adoption of standardized policies and procedures is done during the development, and approval of the SSP is done by the system owner, not the authorizing official. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, p. 245; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 2, p. 63.

The role that has the obligation to ensure that a third party provider is capable of processing and handling data in a secure manner and meeting the standards set by the organization is the data owner. A data owner is a person or an entity that has the authority or the responsibility for the data or the information within an organization, and that determines or defines the classification, the usage, the protection, or the retention of the data or the information. A data owner has the obligation to ensure that a third party provider is capable of processing and handling data in a secure manner and meeting the standards set by the organization, as the data owner is ultimately accountable or liable for the security or the quality of the data or the information, regardless of who processes or handles the data or the information. A data owner can ensure that a third party provider is capable of processing and handling data in a secure manner and meeting the standards set by the organization, by performing the tasks or the functions such as conducting due diligence, establishing service level agreements, defining security requirements, monitoring performance, or auditing compliance. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 2, page 61; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 2, page 67

 If compromised, the virtual machine monitor would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines. The virtual machine monitor, also known as the hypervisor, is the software layer that creates and manages the virtual machines on a physical host. The virtual machine monitor controls the allocation and distribution of the hardware resources, such as CPU, memory, disk, and network, among the virtual machines. The virtual machine monitor also provides the isolation and separation of the virtual machines from each other and from the physical host. If the virtual machine monitor is compromised, the attacker can gain access to all the virtual machines and their data, as well as the physical host and its resources.

• A. Virtual device drivers are not the components that would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines if compromised, but rather the components that enable the communication and interaction between the virtual machines and the physical devices. Virtual device drivers are the software modules that emulate the functionality and behavior of the physical devices, such as keyboards, mice, disks, or network cards, for the virtual machines. Virtual device drivers can be compromised by malicious code or data, but they only affect the specific virtual machine that uses them, not the other virtual machines or the physical host.
• C. Virtual machine instance is not the component that would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines if compromised, but rather the component that represents a single virtual machine. A virtual machine instance is the software implementation of a computer system that runs on the virtual machine monitor and shares the hardware resources with other virtual machines. A virtual machine instance can be compromised by malware or attacks, but it only affects the security and functionality of that virtual machine, not the other virtual machines or the physical host, unless the virtual machine monitor is also compromised.
• D. Virtual machine file system is not the component that would lead to the exploitation of multiple virtual machines if compromised, but rather the component that stores the data and configuration of a virtual machine. A virtual machine file system is the logical structure that organizes the files and directories of a virtual machine on the physical storage device. A virtual machine file system can be compromised by unauthorized access or modification, but it only affects the integrity and availability of that virtual machine, not the other virtual machines or the physical host, unless the virtual machine monitor is also compromised.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 269; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, page 234

 Regarding asset security and appropriate retention, the initial top three areas that are important to focus on are security control baselines, access controls, employee awareness and training. Asset security and appropriate retention are the processes of identifying, classifying, protecting, and disposing of the assets of an organization, such as data, systems, devices, or facilities. Asset security and appropriate retention can help prevent or reduce the loss, theft, damage, or misuse of the assets, as well as comply with the legal and regulatory requirements. The initial top three areas that can help achieve asset security and appropriate retention are:

• Security control baselines: These are the minimum set of security controls or measures that are applied to the assets based on their classification, value, and risk level. Security control baselines can help ensure the consistency, effectiveness, and efficiency of the security protection for the assets, as well as facilitate the monitoring and auditing of the security compliance. Security control baselines can include technical, administrative, or physical controls, such as encryption, authentication, policies, procedures, locks, alarms, etc34
• Access controls: These are the mechanisms that regulate who or what can access, use, modify, or delete the assets. Access controls can help prevent or limit the unauthorized or malicious access to the assets, as well as enforce the principle of least privilege and the separation of duties. Access controls can include identification, authentication, authorization, and accountability (IAAA) processes, as well as access control models, such as discretionary, mandatory, or role-based access control56
• Employee awareness and training: These are the activities that educate and inform the employees about the security policies, procedures, and best practices of the organization, as well as the roles and responsibilities of the employees regarding the asset security and appropriate retention. Employee awareness and training can help increase the knowledge, skills, and attitude of the employees towards security, as well as reduce the human errors, negligence, or violations that may compromise the asset security and appropriate retention. Employee awareness and training can include seminars, workshops, newsletters, posters, quizzes, etc.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 2: Asset Security, pp. 61-62; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Domain 2: Asset Security, pp. 163-164.

 The best description of the purpose of performing security certification is to formalize the confirmation of compliance to security policies and standards. Security certification is the process of evaluating and validating the security posture and compliance of a system or network against a set of predefined criteria, such as security policies, standards, regulations, or best practices. Security certification results in a formal statement or document that attests the level of security and compliance achieved by the system or network.

• A. To identify system threats, vulnerabilities, and acceptable level of risk is not the best description of the purpose of performing security certification, but rather the purpose of performing security assessment. Security assessment is the process of identifying and analyzing the security threats, vulnerabilities, and risks of a system or network, and determining the acceptable level of risk and the risk mitigation strategies.
• C. To formalize the confirmation of completed risk mitigation and risk analysis is not the best description of the purpose of performing security certification, but rather the purpose of performing security accreditation. Security accreditation is the process of authorizing and approving the operation of a system or network based on the results of security certification and risk analysis, and the acceptance of residual risk.
• D. To verify that system architecture and interconnections with other systems are effectively implemented is not the best description of the purpose of performing security certification, but rather one of the possible aspects or objectives of security certification. Security certification can cover various aspects of system security, such as architecture, design, implementation, configuration, operation, maintenance, or interconnection.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, page 147; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3, page 123

According to the CXL blog1, the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective is the third-party vendor with access to the system. A third-party vendor is an external entity or organization that provides a service or a product to the organization, such as a software developer, a cloud provider, or a payment processor. A third-party vendor with access to the system is a potential source of vulnerability or risk for the organization, as it may introduce or expose some weaknesses or flaws in the system, such as the configuration, the authentication, or the encryption of the system. A third-party vendor with access to the system may also be a target or a vector of attack for the malicious users or hackers, as it may be compromised or exploited to gain unauthorized or unintended access to the system, or to perform malicious actions or activities on the system, such as stealing, modifying, or deleting the data or information on the system. Therefore, the scenario of the third-party vendor with access to the system must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, as it helps to identify and assess the security gaps or issues that may arise from the third-party vendor’s access to the system, as well as to recommend and implement the appropriate safeguards or countermeasures to prevent or mitigate the potential harm or damage to the system. System administrator access compromised is not the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, although it may be a scenario that could be covered for the penetration test to be more comprehensive. A system administrator is an internal entity or person that manages and maintains the system, such as the network, the server, or the database of the organization. A system administrator access compromised is a scenario in which the system administrator’s account or credentials are stolen, hacked, or misused by the malicious users or hackers, who can then access or use the system with the system administrator’s privileges or permissions, such as creating, modifying, or deleting the users, the data, or the settings of the system. A system administrator access compromised is a scenario that could be covered for the penetration test to be more comprehensive, as it helps to identify and assess the security gaps or issues that may arise from the system administrator’s access to the system, as well as to recommend and implement the appropriate safeguards or countermeasures to prevent or mitigate the potential harm or damage to the system. However, a system administrator access compromised is not the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, as it is not a common or realistic scenario that occurs in the real world, and as it is not directly related to the third-party vendor’s access to the system, which is the main focus of the penetration test. Internal attacker with access to the system is not the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, although it may be a scenario that could be covered for the penetration test to be more comprehensive. An internal attacker is an internal entity or person that performs malicious actions or activities on the system, such as an employee, a contractor, or a partner of the organization. An internal attacker with access to the system is a scenario in which the internal attacker uses their legitimate or illegitimate access to the system to perform malicious actions or activities on the system, such as stealing, modifying, or deleting the data or information on the system. An internal attacker with access to the system is a scenario that could be covered for the penetration test to be more comprehensive, as it helps to identify and assess the security gaps or issues that may arise from the internal attacker’s access to the system, as well as to recommend and implement the appropriate safeguards or countermeasures to prevent or mitigate the potential harm or damage to the system. However, an internal attacker with access to the system is not the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, as it is not directly related to the third-party vendor’s access to the system, which is the main focus of the penetration test. Internal user accidentally accessing data is not the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, although it may be a scenario that could be covered for the penetration test to be more comprehensive. An internal user is an internal entity or person that uses the system for legitimate purposes or functions, such as an employee, a contractor, or a partner of the organization. An internal user accidentally accessing data is a scenario in which the internal user unintentionally or mistakenly accesses or views the data or information on the system that they are not supposed to access or view, such as the confidential, sensitive, or personal data or information of the organization or the customers. An internal user accidentally accessing data is a scenario that could be covered for the penetration test to be more comprehensive, as it helps to identify and assess the security gaps or issues that may arise from the internal user’s access to the system, as well as to recommend and implement the appropriate safeguards or countermeasures to prevent or mitigate the potential harm or damage to the system. However, an internal user accidentally accessing data is not the scenario that must be covered for the penetration test to be effective, as it is not a malicious or intentional scenario that poses a serious threat or risk to the system, and as it is not directly related to the third-party vendor’s access to the system, which is the main focus of the penetration test. References: 1

The first step in protecting privacy in an information system is data minimization. Data minimization is the principle and practice of collecting and processing only the minimum amount and type of data that is necessary and relevant for the intended purpose, and retaining the data only for the required duration. Data minimization reduces the risk and impact of data breaches, as well as the cost and complexity of data protection.

• A. Data Redaction is not the first step in protecting privacy in an information system, but rather a technique or tool that can be used to protect privacy in an information system. Data redaction is the process of removing or obscuring sensitive or personal data from a document or a record, while preserving the rest of the data. Data redaction can be used to protect the privacy of the data subjects when the data is shared or disclosed to unauthorized or untrusted parties.
• C. Data Encryption is not the first step in protecting privacy in an information system, but rather a technique or tool that can be used to protect privacy in an information system. Data encryption is the process of transforming or encoding data into an unreadable or unintelligible form, using a secret key or algorithm. Data encryption can be used to protect the confidentiality and integrity of the data when the data is stored or transmitted over a network.
• D. Data Storage is not the first step in protecting privacy in an information system, but rather a component or function that is involved in an information system. Data storage is the process of saving or retaining data in a physical or logical medium, such as a disk, a tape, a cloud, or a database. Data storage can affect the privacy of the data, depending on the location, format, and security of the storage medium.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 2, page 83; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 2, page 79

 Internet Protocol (IP) source address spoofing is used to defeat address-based authentication, which is a method of verifying the identity of a user or a system based on their IP address. IP source address spoofing involves forging the IP header of a packet to make it appear as if it came from a trusted or authorized source, and bypassing the authentication check. IP source address spoofing can be used for various malicious purposes, such as denial-of-service attacks, man-in-the-middle attacks, or session hijacking34. References: 3: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 5274: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 5, page 153.

 The first step to take when implementing a patch management program is to create a system inventory. A system inventory is a comprehensive list of all the hardware and software assets in the organization, such as servers, workstations, laptops, mobile devices, routers, switches, firewalls, operating systems, applications, firmware, etc. A system inventory helps to identify the scope and complexity of the patch management program, as well as the current patch status and vulnerabilities of each asset. A system inventory also helps to prioritize and schedule patch deployment, monitor patch compliance, and report patch performance56. References: 5: Patch Management Best Practices76: Patch Management Process8

Copyright is a form of intellectual property that grants the author or creator of an original work the exclusive right to reproduce, distribute, perform, display, or license the work. Copyright does not protect ideas, concepts, facts, discoveries, or methods, but only the particular expression of an idea in a tangible medium, such as a book, a song, a painting, or a software program12. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, page 2872: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 3, page 87.

 The best response to the auditor is to demonstrate that the system enforces the password policy and does not allow non-compliant passwords to be created. This way, the auditor can verify the compliance without compromising the confidentiality or integrity of the encrypted passwords. Providing the encrypted passwords and analysis tools to the auditor (A) may expose the passwords to unauthorized access or modification. Analyzing the encrypted passwords for the auditor and showing them the results (B) may not be sufficient to convince the auditor of the compliance, as the results could be manipulated or falsified. Demonstrating that non-compliant passwords cannot be encrypted in the system (D) is not a valid response, as encryption does not depend on the compliance of the passwords. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 241; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 5, page 303.

Granularity is the degree of detail or precision that an access control system can provide. A granular access control system can specify different levels of access for different users, groups, resources, or conditions. For example, a granular firewall can allow or deny traffic based on the source, destination, port, protocol, time, or other criteria

A cold site is a backup facility with little or no hardware equipment installed. It is the most cost-effective option among the three disaster recovery sites, but it takes a lot of time to properly set it up and resume business operations. Therefore, testing a cold site is the most difficult and time-consuming task.

Role Based Access Control (RBAC) is the security mechanism that provides the best way to restrict the execution of privileged procedures. Privileged procedures are the actions or commands that require higher or special permissions or privileges to perform, such as changing system settings, installing software, or accessing sensitive data. RBAC is a security model that assigns permissions and privileges to roles, rather than to individual users. Roles are defined based on the functions or responsibilities of the users in an organization. Users are assigned to roles based on their qualifications or credentials. RBAC enforces the principle of least privilege, which means that users only have the minimum permissions and privileges necessary to perform their tasks. RBAC also simplifies the administration and management of access control, as it reduces the complexity and redundancy of assigning permissions and privileges to individual users. RBAC is not the same as biometric access control, federated identity management, or application hardening. Biometric access control is a security mechanism that uses physical or behavioral characteristics of the users, such as fingerprints, iris patterns, or voice recognition, to authenticate and authorize them. Federated identity management is a security mechanism that enables the sharing and recognition of identity information across different organizations or domains, using standards and protocols such as SAML, OAuth, or OpenID. Application hardening is a security mechanism that involves the modification or improvement of an application’s code, design, or configuration, to make it more resistant to attacks or vulnerabilities. 

Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is an authentication protocol in which a new random number is generated uniquely for each login session. CHAP is used to authenticate a user or a system over a Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) connection, such as a dial-up or a VPN connection. CHAP works as follows: The server sends a challenge message to the client, which contains a random number. The client calculates a response by applying a one-way hash function to the random number and its own secret key, and sends the response back to the server. The server performs the same calculation using the same random number and the secret key stored in its database, and compares the results. If they match, the authentication is successful. CHAP provides more security than Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), which sends the username and password in clear text over the network . References: : CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5, page 516. : CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 5, page 151.

The birthday attack is most effective against cryptographic hash, which is one of the cipher technologies. A cryptographic hash is a function that takes an input of any size and produces an output of a fixed size, called a hash or a digest, that represents the input. A cryptographic hash has several properties, such as being one-way, collision-resistant, and deterministic3. A birthday attack is a type of brute-force attack that exploits the mathematical phenomenon known as the birthday paradox, which states that in a set of randomly chosen elements, there is a high probability that some pair of elements will have the same value. A birthday attack can be used to find collisions in a cryptographic hash, which means finding two different inputs that produce the same hash. Finding collisions can compromise the integrity or the security of the hash, as it can allow an attacker to forge or modify the input without changing the hash. Chaining block encryption, asymmetric cryptography, and streaming cryptography are not as vulnerable to the birthday attack, as they are different types of encryption algorithms that use keys and ciphers to transform the input into an output. References: 3: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 3, page 133. : CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 3, page 143.

 The primary concern when designing and coordinating a security assessment for an Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) system is the availability of the network connection. An ATM system relies on a network connection to communicate with the bank’s servers and process the transactions of the customers. If the network connection is disrupted, degraded, or compromised, the ATM system may not be able to function properly, or may expose the customers’ data or money to unauthorized access or theft. Therefore, a security assessment for an ATM system should focus on ensuring that the network connection is reliable, resilient, and secure, and that there are backup or alternative solutions in case of network failure12. References: 1: ATM Security: Best Practices for Automated Teller Machines32: ATM Security: A Comprehensive Guide4

 An Information Protection Policy (IPP) is a document that defines the objectives, scope, roles, responsibilities, and rules for protecting the information assets of an organization. An IPP should be aligned with the business goals and legal requirements, and should be communicated and enforced throughout the organization. When constructing an IPP, it is important that the stated rules are necessary, adequate, and achievable, meaning that they are relevant, sufficient, and realistic for the organization’s context and capabilities34. References: 3: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, page 234: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 1, page 15.

Including a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) in the design of a computer system is an example of a technique to establish a secure initial state. A TPM is a hardware device that provides cryptographic functions and secure storage for keys, certificates, passwords, and other sensitive data. A TPM can also measure and verify the integrity of the system components, such as the BIOS, boot loader, operating system, and applications, before they are executed. This process is known as trusted boot or measured boot, and it ensures that the system is in a known and trusted state before allowing access to the user or network. A TPM can also enable features such as disk encryption, remote attestation, and platform authentication12. References: 1: What is a Trusted Platform Module (TPM)?32: Trusted Platform Module (TPM) Fundamentals4

During an audit of system management, if auditors find that the system administrator has not been trained, the immediate action that needs to be taken to ensure the integrity of systems is a review of all systems by an experienced administrator. This is to verify that the systems are configured, maintained, and secured properly, and that there are no errors, vulnerabilities, or breaches that could compromise the system’s availability, confidentiality, or integrity. A review of hiring policies, departmental procedures, or training procedures are not urgent actions, as they are more related to the long-term improvement of the system management process, rather than the current state of the systems . References: : CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8, page 829. : CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 8, page 267.

 A Kerberos server must be well protected from unauthorized access because it contains the keys of all clients. Kerberos is a network authentication protocol that uses symmetric cryptography and a trusted third party, called the Key Distribution Center (KDC), to provide secure and mutual authentication between clients and servers2. The KDC consists of two components: the Authentication Server (AS) and the Ticket Granting Server (TGS). The AS issues a Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT) to the client after verifying its identity and password. The TGS issues a service ticket to the client after validating its TGT and the requested service. The client then uses the service ticket to access the service. The KDC stores the keys of all clients and services in its database, and uses them to encrypt and decrypt the tickets. If an attacker gains access to the KDC, they can compromise the keys and the tickets, and impersonate any client or service on the network. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 4, page 91.

Identifying the number of security flaws within the system is the best assessment metric to understand a system’s vulnerability to potential exploits. A security flaw is a weakness or a defect in the system’s design, implementation, or operation that could be exploited by an attacker to compromise the system’s confidentiality, integrity, or availability2. By identifying the number of security flaws within the system, the assessor can measure the system’s vulnerability, which is the degree to which the system is susceptible or exposed to attacks3. Determining the probability that the system functions safely during any time period, quantifying the system’s available services, and measuring the system’s integrity in the presence of failure are not assessment metrics that directly relate to the system’s vulnerability to potential exploits, as they are more concerned with the system’s reliability, availability, and resilience. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 8, page 2173: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 8, page 461.

A trojan horse is a type of malware that masquerades as a legitimate program or file, but performs malicious actions in the background. A trojan horse may open unauthorized ports on the infected system, allowing remote access or communication by the attacker or other malware12. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 6432: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 6, page 189.

The most relevant reading material for researching an organization’s legal obligations to protect privacy-related information is the privacy-related regulations enforced by governing bodies applicable to the organization. These regulations define the legal requirements, standards, and penalties for collecting, processing, storing, and disclosing personal or sensitive information of individuals or entities. The organization must comply with these regulations to avoid legal liabilities, fines, or sanctions. The other options are not as relevant as privacy-related regulations, as they either do not reflect the legal obligations of the organization (A and C), or do not apply to all types of privacy-related information (D). References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, page 22; Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1, page 31.

 The best way to ensure document confidentiality in the repository is to encrypt the contents of the repository and document any exceptions to that requirement. Encryption is the process of transforming the information into an unreadable form using a secret key or algorithm. Encryption protects the confidentiality of the information by preventing unauthorized access or disclosure, even if the repository is compromised or breached. Encryption also provides integrity and authenticity of the information by ensuring that it has not been modified or tampered with. Documenting any exceptions to the encryption requirement is also important to justify the reasons and risks for not encrypting certain information, and to apply alternative controls if needed93. References: 9: What Is a Document Repository and What Are the Benefits of Using One103: What is a document repository and why you should have one11

The best practice for testing a Business Continuity Plan (BCP) is to test it when the environment changes, such as when there are new business processes, technologies, threats, or regulations. This ensures that the BCP is updated, relevant, and effective for the current situation. Testing the BCP before the IT audit, after installation of security patches, or after implementation of system patches are not the best practices, as they may not reflect the actual changes in the business environment or the potential disruptions that may occur. References: 5: Comprehensive Guide to Business Continuity Testing67: Maximizing Your BCP Testing Efforts: Best Practices8

The most important factor in designing a biometric access system if it is essential that no one other than authorized individuals are admitted is the False Acceptance Rate (FAR). FAR is the probability that a biometric system will incorrectly accept an unauthorized user or reject an authorized user2. FAR is a measure of the security or accuracy of the biometric system, and it should be as low as possible to prevent unauthorized access. False Rejection Rate (FRR), Crossover Error Rate (CER), and Rejection Error Rate are not as important as FAR, as they are related to the usability or convenience of the biometric system, rather than the security. FRR is the probability that a biometric system will incorrectly reject an authorized user or accept an unauthorized user. CER is the point where FAR and FRR are equal, and it is used to compare the performance of different biometric systems. Rejection Error Rate is the probability that a biometric system will fail to capture or process a biometric sample. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 4, page 95.

 The stringency of an Information Technology (IT) security assessment will be determined by the sensitivity of the system’s data, as this reflects the level of risk and impact that a security breach could have on the organization and its stakeholders. The more sensitive the data, the more stringent the security assessment should be, as it should cover more aspects of the system, use more rigorous methods and tools, and provide more detailed and accurate results and recommendations. The system’s past security record, size of the system’s database, and age of the system are not the main factors that determine the stringency of the security assessment, as they do not directly relate to the value and importance of the data that the system processes, stores, or transmits . References: 3: Common Criteria for Information Technology Security Evaluation 4: Information technology security assessment - Wikipedia

They are subject to interception by an antenna within proximity. Point-to-point microwave transmissions are line-of-sight media, which means that they can be intercepted by any antenna that is in the direct path of the signal. The interception does not depend on encryption, multiplexing, or signal strength, as long as the antenna is close enough to receive the signal.

Diffusion is the principle that requires that changes to the plaintext affect many parts of the ciphertext. Diffusion is a property of a good encryption algorithm that aims to spread the influence of each plaintext bit over many ciphertext bits, so that a small change in the plaintext results in a large change in the ciphertext2. Diffusion can increase the security of the encryption by making it harder for an attacker to analyze the statistical patterns or correlations between the plaintext and the ciphertext. Encapsulation, obfuscation, and permutation are not principles that require that changes to the plaintext affect many parts of the ciphertext, as they are related to different aspects of encryption or security. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 3, page 65.

 Data validation is a method used to prevent Structured Query Language (SQL) injection attacks, which are a type of web application attack that exploit the input fields of a web form to inject malicious SQL commands into the underlying database. Data validation involves checking the input data for any illegal or unexpected characters, such as quotes, semicolons, or keywords, and rejecting or sanitizing them before passing them to the database34. References: 3: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 6604: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 6, page 199.

 A security feature of Global Systems for Mobile Communications (GSM) is that it uses a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) for authentication. A SIM is a smart card that contains the subscriber’s identity, phone number, network information, and encryption keys. The SIM is inserted into the mobile device and communicates with the network to authenticate the subscriber and establish a secure connection. The SIM also stores the subscriber’s contacts, messages, and preferences. The SIM provides security by preventing unauthorized access to the subscriber’s account and data, and by allowing the subscriber to easily switch devices without losing their information12. References: 1: GSM - Security and Encryption32: Introduction to GSM security

The best practice for preventing e-mail spoofing is to use cryptographic signatures. E-mail spoofing is a technique that involves forging the sender’s address or identity in an e-mail message, usually to trick the recipient into opening a malicious attachment, clicking on a phishing link, or disclosing sensitive information. Cryptographic signatures are digital signatures that are created by encrypting the e-mail message or a part of it with the sender’s private key, and attaching it to the e-mail message. Cryptographic signatures can be used to verify the authenticity and integrity of the sender and the message, and to prevent e-mail spoofing5 . References: 5: What is Email Spoofing? : How to Prevent Email Spoofing

The first security action that should be taken when computer personnel are terminated from their jobs is to remove their computer access. Computer access is the ability to log in, use, or modify the computer systems, networks, or data of the organization3. Removing computer access can prevent the terminated personnel from accessing or harming the organization’s information assets, or from stealing or leaking sensitive or confidential data. Removing computer access can also reduce the risk of insider threats, such as sabotage, fraud, or espionage. Requiring them to turn in their badge, conducting an exit interview, and reducing their physical access level to the facility are also important security actions that should be taken when computer personnel are terminated from their jobs, but they are not as urgent or critical as removing their computer access. References: 3: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 5, page 249.

Permission is the type of authorized interactions a subject can have with an object. Permission is a rule or a setting that defines the specific actions or operations that a subject can perform on an object, such as read, write, execute, or delete1. Permission is usually granted by the owner or the administrator of the object, and can be based on the identity, role, or group membership of the subject. Control, procedure, and protocol are not types of authorized interactions a subject can have with an object, as they are related to different aspects of access control or security. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6, page 355.

The three primary requirements for a penetration test are a defined goal, a limited time period, and an approval of management. A penetration test is a type of security assessment that simulates a malicious attack on an information system or network, with the permission of the owner, to identify and exploit vulnerabilities and evaluate the security posture of the system or network. A penetration test requires a defined goal, which is the specific objective or scope of the test, such as testing a particular system, network, application, or function. A penetration test also requires a limited time period, which is the duration or deadline of the test, such as a few hours, days, or weeks. A penetration test also requires an approval of management, which is the formal authorization and consent from the senior management of the organization that owns the system or network to be tested, as well as the management of the organization that conducts the test. A general objective, unlimited time, and approval of the network administrator are not the primary requirements for a penetration test, as they may not provide a clear and realistic direction, scope, and authorization for the test.

 Defense in depth is a security strategy that involves applying multiple layers of protection to a system or network to prevent or mitigate attacks. The use of strong authentication, the encryption of Personally Identifiable Information (PII) on database servers, application security reviews, and the encryption of data transmitted across networks are examples of defense in depth measures that can enhance the security of the system or network.

A, C, and D are incorrect because they are not the best terms to describe the security strategy. Data integrity is a property of data that ensures its accuracy, consistency, and validity. Data availability is a property of data that ensures its accessibility and usability. Non-repudiation is a property of data that ensures its authenticity and accountability. While these properties are important for security, they are not the same as defense in depth.

An Electronic Access Control (EAC) token is best known for its ability to overcome the problems of key assignments in a physical security system. An EAC token is a device that can be used to authenticate a user or grant access to a physical area or resource, such as a door, a gate, or a locker2. An EAC token can be a smart card, a magnetic stripe card, a proximity card, a key fob, or a biometric device. An EAC token can overcome the problems of key assignments, which are the issues or challenges of managing and distributing physical keys to authorized users, such as lost, stolen, duplicated, or unreturned keys. An EAC token can provide more security, convenience, and flexibility than a physical key, as it can be easily activated, deactivated, or replaced, and it can also store additional information or perform other functions. Monitoring the opening of windows and doors, triggering alarms when intruders are detected, and locking down a facility during an emergency are not the abilities that an EAC token is best known for, as they are more related to the functions of other components of a physical security system, such as sensors, alarms, or locks. References: 2: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 9, page 253.

Proximity to an airline flight path is the least important consideration in choosing a building site for a new computer facility, as it poses the lowest risk factor compared to the other options. Proximity to an airline flight path may cause some noise or interference issues, but it is unlikely to result in a major disaster or damage to the computer facility, unless there is a rare case of a plane crash or a terrorist attack3. Vulnerability to crime, adjacent buildings and businesses, and vulnerability to natural disasters are more important considerations in choosing a building site for a new computer facility, as they can pose significant threats to the physical security, availability, and integrity of the facility and its assets. Vulnerability to crime can expose the facility to theft, vandalism, or sabotage. Adjacent buildings and businesses can affect the fire safety, power supply, or environmental conditions of the facility. Vulnerability to natural disasters can cause the facility to suffer from floods, earthquakes, storms, or fires. References: 3: Official (ISC)2 CISSP CBK Reference, 5th Edition, Chapter 10, page 543.

 By allowing storage communications to run on top of Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) with a Storage Area Network (SAN), the opportunity to sniff network traffic exists. A SAN is a dedicated network that connects storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, or servers, to provide high-speed data access and transfer. A SAN may use different protocols or technologies to communicate with storage devices, such as Fibre Channel, iSCSI, or NFS. By allowing storage communications to run on top of TCP/IP, a common network protocol that supports internet and intranet communications, a SAN may leverage the existing network infrastructure and reduce costs and complexity. However, this also exposes the storage communications to the same risks and threats that affect the network communications, such as sniffing, spoofing, or denial-of-service attacks. Sniffing is the act of capturing or monitoring network traffic, which may reveal sensitive or confidential information, such as passwords, encryption keys, or data. By allowing storage communications to run on top of TCP/IP with a SAN, the confidentiality of the traffic is not protected, unless encryption or other security measures are applied. The opportunity for device identity spoofing is not eliminated, as an attacker may still impersonate a legitimate storage device or server by using a forged or stolen IP address or MAC address. The storage devices are not protected against availability attacks, as an attacker may still disrupt or overload the network or the storage devices by sending malicious or excessive packets or requests.

The primary purpose of a security awareness program is to ensure that everyone understands the organization’s policies and procedures related to information security. A security awareness program is a set of activities, materials, or events that aim to educate and inform the employees, contractors, partners, and customers of the organization about the security goals, principles, and practices of the organization1. A security awareness program can help to create a security culture, improve the security behavior, and reduce the human errors or risks. Communicating that access to information will be granted on a need-to-know basis, warning all users that access to all systems will be monitored on a daily basis, and complying with regulations related to data and information protection are not the primary purposes of a security awareness program, as they are more specific or secondary objectives that may be part of the program, but not the main goal. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1, page 28.

Black box testing is a method of software testing that does not require any knowledge of the internal structure or code of the software1. The test planner only knows the functional specifications, which describe what the software is supposed to do, and tests the software based on the expected inputs and outputs. Black box testing is useful for finding errors in the functionality, usability, or performance of the software, but it cannot detect errors in the code or design. White box testing, on the other hand, requires the test planner to have access to the source code and the design documents, and tests the software based on the internal logic and structure2. References: 1: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 21, page 13132: CISSP For Dummies, 7th Edition, Chapter 8, page 215.

 Supplying a duress alarm for personnel exposed to the public is the most cost-effective method to provide a reactive control for protecting personnel in public areas. A duress alarm is a device that allows a person to signal for help in case of an emergency, such as an attack, a robbery, or a medical condition. A duress alarm can be activated by pressing a button, pulling a cord, or speaking a code word. A duress alarm can alert security personnel, law enforcement, or other responders to the location and nature of the emergency, and initiate appropriate actions. A duress alarm is a reactive control because it responds to an incident after it has occurred, rather than preventing it from happening.

The other options are not as cost-effective as supplying a duress alarm, as they involve more expensive or complex technologies or resources. Installing mantraps at the building entrances is a preventive control that restricts the access of unauthorized persons to the facility, but it also requires more space, maintenance, and supervision. Enclosing the personnel entry area with polycarbonate plastic is a preventive control that protects the personnel from physical attacks, but it also reduces the visibility and ventilation of the area. Hiring a guard to protect the public area is a deterrent control that discourages potential attackers, but it also involves paying wages, benefits, and training costs.

Purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive of a laptop before traveling to a high risk area will reduce the risk of data compromise or theft in case the laptop is lost, stolen, or seized by unauthorized parties. Purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive will erase all the data and applications on the laptop, leaving only the operating system and the essential software. This will minimize the exposure of sensitive or confidential information that could be accessed by malicious actors. Purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive should be done using secure methods that prevent data recovery, such as overwriting, degaussing, or physical destruction.

The other options will not reduce the risk to the laptop as effectively as purging or re-imaging the hard disk drive. Examining the device for physical tampering will only detect if the laptop has been compromised after the fact, but will not prevent it from happening. Implementing more stringent baseline configurations will improve the security settings and policies of the laptop, but will not protect the data if the laptop is bypassed or breached. Changing access codes will make it harder for unauthorized users to log in to the laptop, but will not prevent them from accessing the data if they use other methods, such as booting from a removable media or removing the hard disk drive.

 When an organization plans to relocate, the most important consideration from a data security perspective is to conduct a gap analysis of the new facilities against the existing security requirements. A gap analysis is a process that identifies and evaluates the differences between the current state and the desired state of a system or a process. In this case, the gap analysis would compare the security controls and measures implemented in the old and new locations, and identify any gaps or weaknesses that need to be addressed. The gap analysis would also help to determine the costs and resources needed to implement the necessary security improvements in the new facilities.

The other options are not as important as conducting a gap analysis, as they do not directly address the data security risks associated with relocation. Ensuring the fire prevention and detection systems are sufficient to protect personnel is a safety issue, not a data security issue. Reviewing the architectural plans to determine how many emergency exits are present is also a safety issue, not a data security issue. Revising the Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity (DR/BC) plan is a good practice, but it is not a preventive measure, rather a reactive one. A DR/BC plan is a document that outlines how an organization will recover from a disaster and resume its normal operations. A DR/BC plan should be updated regularly, not only when relocating.

A Business Impact Analysis (BIA) is a process that identifies and evaluates the potential effects of natural and man-made disasters on business operations. The BIA questionnaire is a tool that collects information from business process owners and stakeholders about the criticality, dependencies, recovery objectives, and resources of their processes. The BIA questionnaire should include questions that:

• Identify the operational impacts of a business interruption, such as loss of revenue, customer satisfaction, reputation, legal obligations, etc.
• Identify the financial impacts of a business interruption, such as direct and indirect costs, fines, penalties, etc.
• Determine the technological dependence of the business processes, such as hardware, software, network, data, etc.
• Establish the recovery time objectives (RTO) and recovery point objectives (RPO) for each business process, which indicate the maximum acceptable downtime and data loss, respectively.

The BIA questionnaire should not include questions that determine the risk of a business interruption occurring, as this is part of the risk assessment process, which is a separate activity from the BIA. The risk assessment process identifies and analyzes the threats and vulnerabilities that could cause a business interruption, and estimates the likelihood and impact of such events. The risk assessment process also evaluates the existing controls and mitigation strategies, and recommends additional measures to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.

A company whose IT services are being delivered from a Tier 4 data center should be most concerned with application failures when preparing a companywide BCP. A BCP is a document that describes how an organization will continue its critical business functions in the event of a disruption or disaster. A BCP should include a risk assessment, a business impact analysis, a recovery strategy, and a testing and maintenance plan.

A Tier 4 data center is the highest level of data center classification, according to the Uptime Institute. A Tier 4 data center has the highest level of availability, reliability, and fault tolerance, as it has multiple and independent paths for power and cooling, and redundant and backup components for all systems. A Tier 4 data center has an uptime rating of 99.995%, which means it can only experience 0.4 hours of downtime per year. Therefore, the likelihood of a power, storage, or network failure in a Tier 4 data center is very low, and the impact of such a failure would be minimal, as the data center can quickly switch to alternative sources or routes.

However, a Tier 4 data center cannot prevent or mitigate application failures, which are caused by software bugs, configuration errors, or malicious attacks. Application failures can affect the functionality, performance, or security of the IT services, and cause data loss, corruption, or breach. Therefore, the IT manager should be most concerned with application failures when preparing a BCP, and ensure that the applications are properly designed, tested, updated, and monitored.

Intellectual property rights are primarily concerned with the owner’s ability to realize financial gain from their creation. Intellectual property is a category of intangible assets that are the result of human creativity and innovation, such as inventions, designs, artworks, literature, music, software, etc. Intellectual property rights are the legal rights that grant the owner the exclusive control over the use, reproduction, distribution, and modification of their intellectual property. Intellectual property rights aim to protect the owner’s interests and incentives, and to reward them for their contribution to the society and economy.

The other options are not the primary concern of intellectual property rights, but rather the secondary or incidental benefits or aspects of them. The owner’s ability to maintain copyright is a means of enforcing intellectual property rights, but not the end goal of them. The right of the owner to enjoy their creation is a personal or moral right, but not a legal or economic one. The right of the owner to control the delivery method is a specific or technical aspect of intellectual property rights, but not a general or fundamental one.

 An important principle of defense in depth is that achieving information security requires a balanced focus on the primary elements of people, technology, and operations. People are the users, administrators, managers, and other stakeholders who are involved in the security process. They need to be aware, trained, motivated, and accountable for their security roles and responsibilities. Technology is the hardware, software, network, and other tools that are used to implement the security controls and measures. They need to be selected, configured, updated, and monitored according to the security standards and best practices. Operations are the policies, procedures, processes, and activities that are performed to achieve the security objectives and requirements. They need to be documented, reviewed, audited, and improved continuously to ensure their effectiveness and efficiency.

The other options are not the primary elements of defense in depth, but rather the phases, functions, or outcomes of the security process. Development, testing, and deployment are the phases of the security life cycle, which describes how security is integrated into the system development process. Prevention, detection, and remediation are the functions of the security management, which describes how security is maintained and improved over time. Certification, accreditation, and monitoring are the outcomes of the security evaluation, which describes how security is assessed and verified against the criteria and standards.

When assessing an organization’s security policy according to standards established by the ISO 27001 and 27002, management responsibilities can be defined only when standards are defined. Standards are the specific rules, guidelines, or procedures that support the implementation of the security policy. Standards define the minimum level of security that must be achieved by the organization, and provide the basis for measuring compliance and performance. Standards also assign roles and responsibilities to different levels of management and staff, and specify the reporting and escalation procedures.

Management responsibilities are the duties and obligations that managers have to ensure the effective and efficient execution of the security policy and standards. Management responsibilities include providing leadership, direction, support, and resources for the security program, establishing and communicating the security objectives and expectations, ensuring compliance with the legal and regulatory requirements, monitoring and reviewing the security performance and incidents, and initiating corrective and preventive actions when needed.

Management responsibilities cannot be defined without standards, as standards provide the framework and criteria for defining what managers need to do and how they need to do it. Management responsibilities also depend on the scope and complexity of the security policy and standards, which may vary depending on the size, nature, and context of the organization. Therefore, standards must be defined before management responsibilities can be defined.

The other options are not correct, as they are not prerequisites for defining management responsibilities. Assets are the resources that need to be protected by the security policy and standards, but they do not determine the management responsibilities. Controls are the measures that are implemented to reduce the security risks and achieve the security objectives, but they do not determine the management responsibilities. Procedures are the detailed instructions that describe how to perform the security tasks and activities, but they do not determine the management responsibilities.

Generating backup tapes unencrypted represents the greatest risk to data confidentiality, as it exposes the data to unauthorized access or disclosure if the tapes are lost, stolen, or intercepted. Backup tapes are often stored off-site or transported to remote locations, which increases the chances of them falling into the wrong hands. If the backup tapes are unencrypted, anyone who obtains them can read the data without any difficulty. Therefore, backup tapes should always be encrypted using strong algorithms and keys, and the keys should be protected and managed separately from the tapes.

The other options do not pose as much risk to data confidentiality as generating backup tapes unencrypted. Network redundancies are not implemented will affect the availability and reliability of the network, but not necessarily the confidentiality of the data. Security awareness training is not completed will increase the likelihood of human errors or negligence that could compromise the data, but not as directly as generating backup tapes unencrypted. Users have administrative privileges will grant users more access and control over the system and the data, but not as widely as generating backup tapes unencrypted.

The best description of the responsibilities of a data owner is determining the impact the information has on the mission of the organization. A data owner is a person or entity that has the authority and accountability for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. A data owner is also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. A data owner should be able to determine the impact the information has on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the information on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data.

The other options are not the best descriptions of the responsibilities of a data owner, but rather the responsibilities of other roles or functions related to data management. Ensuring quality and validation through periodic audits for ongoing data integrity is a responsibility of a data steward, who is a person or entity that oversees the quality, consistency, and usability of the data. Maintaining fundamental data availability, including data storage and archiving is a responsibility of a data custodian, who is a person or entity that implements and maintains the technical and physical security of the data. Ensuring accessibility to appropriate users, maintaining appropriate levels of data security is a responsibility of a data controller, who is a person or entity that determines the purposes and means of processing the data.

Identity as a Service (IDaaS) is the best contract in offloading the task of account management from the IT staff. IDaaS is a cloud-based service that provides identity and access management (IAM) functions, such as user authentication, authorization, provisioning, deprovisioning, password management, single sign-on (SSO), and multifactor authentication (MFA). IDaaS can help the organization to streamline and automate the account management process, reduce the workload and costs of the IT staff, and improve the security and compliance of the user accounts. IDaaS can also support the contractors who have limited onsite time, as they can access the organization’s resources remotely and securely through the IDaaS provider.

The other options are not as effective as IDaaS in offloading the task of account management from the IT staff, as they do not provide IAM functions. Platform as a Service (PaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides a platform for developing, testing, and deploying applications, but it does not manage the user accounts for the applications. Desktop as a Service (DaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides virtual desktops for users to access applications and data, but it does not manage the user accounts for the virtual desktops. Software as a Service (SaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides software applications for users to use, but it does not manage the user accounts for the software applications.

The passage of time is one of the factors that affects the classification of data. Data classification is the process of assigning a level of sensitivity or criticality to data based on its value, impact, and legal requirements. Data classification helps to determine the appropriate security controls and handling procedures for the data. However, data classification is not static, but dynamic, meaning that it can change over time depending on various factors. One of these factors is the passage of time, which can affect the relevance, usefulness, or sensitivity of the data. For example, data that is classified as confidential or secret at one point in time may become obsolete, outdated, or declassified at a later point in time, and thus require a lower level of protection. Conversely, data that is classified as public or unclassified at one point in time may become more valuable, sensitive, or regulated at a later point in time, and thus require a higher level of protection. Therefore, data classification should be reviewed and updated periodically to reflect the changes in the data over time.

The other options are not factors that affect the classification of data, but rather the outcomes or components of data classification. Assigned security label is the result of data classification, which indicates the level of sensitivity or criticality of the data. Multilevel Security (MLS) architecture is a system that supports data classification, which allows different levels of access to data based on the clearance and need-to-know of the users. Minimum query size is a parameter that can be used to enforce data classification, which limits the amount of data that can be retrieved or displayed at a time.

In a data classification scheme, the data is owned by the business managers. Business managers are the persons or entities that have the authority and accountability for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. Business managers are also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. Business managers should be able to determine the impact the information has on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the information on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data.

The other options are not the data owners in a data classification scheme, but rather the other roles or functions related to data management. System security managers are the persons or entities that oversee the security of the information systems and networks that store, process, and transmit the data. They are responsible for implementing and maintaining the technical and physical security of the data, as well as monitoring and auditing the security performance and incidents. Information Technology (IT) managers are the persons or entities that manage the IT resources and services that support the business processes and functions that use the data. They are responsible for ensuring the availability, reliability, and scalability of the IT infrastructure and applications, as well as providing technical support and guidance to the users and stakeholders. End users are the persons or entities that access and use the data for their legitimate purposes and needs. They are responsible for complying with the security policies and procedures for the data, as well as reporting any security issues or violations.

 When assigning ownership of an asset to a department, the most important factor is to ensure individual accountability for the asset. Individual accountability means that each person who has access to or uses the asset is responsible for its protection and proper handling. Individual accountability also implies that each person who causes or contributes to a security breach or incident involving the asset can be identified and held liable. Individual accountability can be achieved by implementing security controls such as authentication, authorization, auditing, and logging.

The other options are not as important as ensuring individual accountability, as they do not directly address the security risks associated with the asset. The department should report to the business owner is a management issue, not a security issue. Ownership of the asset should be periodically reviewed is a good practice, but it does not prevent misuse or abuse of the asset. All members should be trained on their responsibilities is a preventive measure, but it does not guarantee compliance or enforcement of the responsibilities.

 When developing an information security management system (ISMS), an initial consideration is to understand the value of the information assets that the organization owns or processes. An information asset is any data, information, or knowledge that has value to the organization and supports its mission, objectives, and operations. Understanding the value of the information assets helps to determine the appropriate level of protection and investment for them, as well as the potential impact and consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing them. Understanding the value of the information assets also helps to identify the stakeholders, owners, and custodians of the information assets, and their roles and responsibilities in the ISMS.

The other options are not initial considerations, but rather subsequent or concurrent considerations when developing an ISMS. Identifying the contractual security obligations that apply to the organizations is a consideration that depends on the nature, scope, and context of the information assets, as well as the relationships and agreements with the external parties. Identifying the level of residual risk that is tolerable to management is a consideration that depends on the risk appetite and tolerance of the organization, as well as the risk assessment and analysis of the information assets. Identifying relevant legislative and regulatory compliance requirements is a consideration that depends on the legal and ethical obligations and expectations of the organization, as well as the jurisdiction and industry of the information assets.

 When implementing a data classification program, it is important to avoid too much granularity, because the process will require too many resources. Data classification is the process of assigning a level of sensitivity or criticality to data based on its value, impact, and legal requirements. Data classification helps to determine the appropriate security controls and handling procedures for the data. However, data classification is not a simple or straightforward process, as it involves many factors, such as the nature, context, and scope of the data, the stakeholders, the regulations, and the standards. If the data classification program has too many levels or categories of data, it will increase the complexity, cost, and time of the process, and reduce the efficiency and effectiveness of the data protection. Therefore, data classification should be done with a balance between granularity and simplicity, and follow the principle of proportionality, which means that the level of protection should be proportional to the level of risk.

The other options are not the main reasons to avoid too much granularity in data classification, but rather the potential challenges or benefits of data classification. It will be difficult to apply to both hardware and software is a challenge of data classification, as it requires consistent and compatible methods and tools for labeling and protecting data across different types of media and devices. It will be difficult to assign ownership to the data is a challenge of data classification, as it requires clear and accountable roles and responsibilities for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of data. The process will be perceived as having value is a benefit of data classification, as it demonstrates the commitment and awareness of the organization to protect its data assets and comply with its obligations.

Asymmetric Card Authentication Key (CAK) challenge-response is an effective control in preventing electronic cloning of RFID based access cards. RFID based access cards are contactless cards that use radio frequency identification (RFID) technology to communicate with a reader and grant access to a physical or logical resource. RFID based access cards are vulnerable to electronic cloning, which is the process of copying the data and identity of a legitimate card to a counterfeit card, and using it to impersonate the original cardholder and gain unauthorized access. Asymmetric CAK challenge-response is a cryptographic technique that prevents electronic cloning by using public key cryptography and digital signatures to verify the authenticity and integrity of the card and the reader. Asymmetric CAK challenge-response works as follows:

• The card and the reader each have a pair of public and private keys, and the public keys are exchanged and stored in advance.
• When the card is presented to the reader, the reader generates a random number (nonce) and sends it to the card.
• The card signs the nonce with its private key and sends the signature back to the reader.
• The reader verifies the signature with the card’s public key and grants access if the verification is successful.
• The card also verifies the reader’s identity by requesting its signature on the nonce and checking it with the reader’s public key.

Asymmetric CAK challenge-response prevents electronic cloning because the private keys of the card and the reader are never transmitted or exposed, and the signatures are unique and non-reusable for each transaction. Therefore, a cloned card cannot produce a valid signature without knowing the private key of the original card, and a rogue reader cannot impersonate a legitimate reader without knowing its private key.

The other options are not as effective as asymmetric CAK challenge-response in preventing electronic cloning of RFID based access cards. Personal Identity Verification (PIV) is a standard for federal employees and contractors to use smart cards for physical and logical access, but it does not specify the cryptographic technique for RFID based access cards. Cardholder Unique Identifier (CHUID) authentication is a technique that uses a unique number and a digital certificate to identify the card and the cardholder, but it does not prevent replay attacks or verify the reader’s identity. Physical Access Control System (PACS) repeated attempt detection is a technique that monitors and alerts on multiple failed or suspicious attempts to access a resource, but it does not prevent the cloning of the card or the impersonation of the reader.